Cellular, Physiology, Injury, and Death

Review and ID the function of each of the following cell components: Nucleus

The control center, contains DNA

Review and ID the function of each of the following cell components: Cytoplasm

the space between the nuclear envelope and the plasma membrane.

Review and ID the function of each of the following cell components: Ribosomes

Protein synthesis

Review and ID the function of each of the following cell components: Endoplasmic Reticulum

Transportation system of proteins and enzymes

Review and ID the function of each of the following cell components: Golgi Apparatus

Packaging of enzymes, hormones, etc.

Review and ID the function of each of the following cell components: Lysosomes

Digestive system of cell, breakdown cellular components, bacteria, and foreign substances

Review and ID the function of each of the following cell components: Mitochondria

Power plant of cell, extract energy from organic compounds

Review and ID the function of each of the following cell components: Nucleolus

Location of RNA transcription

ID and discern the function of the “plasma membrane” (lipid bilayer) and its components, including lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates

Structure: Adherence to the cytoskeleton, physical barrier

Signal Transmission: Integral protein receptors on the membrane provide ligand attachments that activate intracellular response cascades

Selective Permeability: Small molecules, ions, gases like O2 and CO2

Transport: Endocytosis, exocytosis, transmembrane protein channels

Cell-to-Cell Recognition: Glycoproteins allow recognition

ID and discern the function of the plasma membrane (lipid bilayer) and its components, including “lipids”, proteins, and carbohydrates

“Molecular Glue”

Phospholipids: main structure of membrane, key to membrane repair

Glycolipids: lipids + carbohydrate

Cholesterol: stabilizes membrane (makes it thicker and harder), synthesis of steroid hormones

ID and recognize the following mechanisms of cell-to-cell communication: Contact signaling by plasma-membrane bound receptors

Molecule (signal) attaches to receptor on plasma membrane of adjacent or nearby cell

ID and recognize the following mechanisms of cell-to-cell communication: Remote signaling by secreted molecules

Paracrine: Signal molecule acts on nearby cell

Autocrine: Signal molecule acts on own cell

Endocrine: Endocrine cell releases hormone signal into blood stream and hormone binds to target cell

Neurohormonal: Neurosecretory neuron cell releases hormone into blood

Neurotransmitter: Carry chemical signals from one neuron to the next target cell (short-range)

ID and recognize the following mechanisms of cell-to-cell communication: contact signaling via gap junctions

Direct connection between membrane proteins of adjacent cells ions/signal molecules move from inside of one cell to inside of the receiving cell directly thourgh the channel

Recognize, ID, and discern the mechanisms of cellular intake and output, including passive and active transport

Cell survival and growth depend on the constant exchange of molecules with their environment. The majority of transport depends on specialized membrane transport proteins. The two main classes of membrane transport proteins are transporters (specific binding sites, undergo shape change) and channels (when open, allow ions/polar molecules to pass through)

Passive transport does not require energy. Passive transport mechanisms include diffusion, filtration, and osmosis. Water and small uncharged molecules move through pores in the plasma membrane’s lipid bilayer.

Active Transport requires ATP. Large molecules and complexes are moved. Active transport of 3 Na+ out and 2 K+ into is found in virtually all cells. (antiports)

Differentiate and recognize the definition of the following terms: Diffusion

Solute molecules move from high to low concentration. Passive movement

Differentiate and recognize the definition of the following terms: Filtration

Movement of water and solutes through a membrane occurs because of a greater pushing pressure on one side. Hydrostatic pressure is the force of water pushing against a cellular membrane

Differentiate and recognize the definition of the following terms: Osmosis

Solvent molecules (H2O) move from low to high solute concentration. Over a semi-permeable membrane.

Differentiate and recognize the definition of the following terms: Osmolality

Concentration of molecules per weight of water (milliosmoles per kg of water)

Differentiate and recognize the definition of the following terms: Osmotic Pressure

The amount of hydrostatic pressure required to oppose the osmotic movement of water is called the osmotic pressure of solution.

Differentiate and recognize the definition of the following terms: Oncotic pressure

The overall osmotic effect of colloids, such as plasma proteins. Higher concentration of proteins in blood causes fluid shift in blood.

Define and differentiate between tonicity, isotonic, hypotonic, and hypertonic

Tonicity: Effective osmolality of a solution

Isotonic: Same osmolarity or concentration of particles (285 mOsm/kg) as extra/intracellular fluid

Hypotonic: Lower concentration; more dilute than body fluids - infusion of hypotonic solution, pulls fluid into the cell, swelling

Hypertonic: Concentration of more than 285-294 mOsm/kg - infusion of hypertonic solution, dehydration

Recognize and ID the mechanism and tissue location of the major transport systems for glucose, amino acids, Na+, Na/H+, Na+/K+, Ca2+, and H+/K+ in mammalian cells

Glucose: Passive - uniport protein channel / Active - symport with Na+, Most tissues

Amino Acids: Active - All axcept proline, symport with Na+ / Intestines, kidneys, and liver

Na+: Passive, Distal renal tubular cells

Na+/H+: Active - antiport & proton pump, proximal renal tubular cells & small intestine

Na+/K+: Active - ATP driven, protein channel, plasma membrane of most cells

Ca2+: Active - ATP driven, antiport with Na+, all cells, antiporter in red cells

H+/K+: Active, Parietal cells of gastric cells secreting H+

ID, recognize, and define the term atrophy

Response in relation to decreased workload or adverse environmental factors, revert to a smaller size and more efficient functioning. Lack of blood supply, nutrients, or stimulation. Paralysis, limb in a cast, and brain.

ID, recognize, and define the term hyperatrophy

Increase in workload resulting in larger cell size and an increase in functioning tissue mass. Repetitive stretching, chronic pressure, and volume overload. Weight-lifting, heart, and kidneys.

ID, recognize, and define the term hyperplasia

An increase in # of cells in a tissue or organ only occurs in cells capable of mitotic division. Liver, extra proliferation, any injury, and breast enlargement during pregnancy

ID, recognize, and define the term dysplasia

Deranged cell growth that results in varied cell sizes, shapes, and organizations, may be reversible, strong precursor to cancer. HPV - cervical cancer

ID, recognize, and define the term metaplasia

Reversible change in which one cell type replaces another, usually due to chronic irritation or inflammation, may be Pre-Cancerous. Smokers may have diff cells in airways because og cells get damaged

Differentiate between physiologic and pathophysiologic adaptive changes

Physiologic: Structural/functional changes to accommodate homeostasis among normal bodily demands

Pathophysiologic: changes that cells, tissues, or organs undergo in response to disease or injury, aiming to maintain homeostasis or cope with the altered environment

ID, recognize, and describe the mechanism and characteristics of cellular injury

Physical Agents: Mechanical forces, temperature extremes, electrical forces

Radiation Injury: Ionizing radiation, UV radiation, Non-ionizing radiation

Chemical Injury: Drugs, lead, mercury

Biologic Agents: Viruses, parasites, bacteria

Nutritional Imbalance: Excesses and deficiencies

Define, ID, and recognize the mechanisms of intracellular accumulations of both normal cellular substances and abnormal subtances

Buildup of substances that cell cannot immediately use or eliminate - usually in cytoplasm (lysosomes) or nucleus

Normal: excess water, proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates

Abnormal: Including endogenous subtances (products of abnormal metabolism and synthesis) and exogenous substances (infectious agents or minerals)

Transient or permanent/toxic or harmless

ID, recognize, and describe the following systemic manifestations and their causes of cellular injury: Fever

Release of endogenous pyrogens from bacteria or macrophages; acute inflammatory response, causes protein desaturation

ID, recognize, and describe the following systemic manifestations and their causes of cellular injury: Increased HR

Fever causing increase in oxidative metabolic process

ID, recognize, and describe the following systemic manifestations and their causes of cellular injury: Increase in leukocytes

Increase in WBC because of infection, how high has direct coorelation with severity of infection

ID, recognize, and describe the following systemic manifestations and their causes of cellular injury: Pain

Release of bradykinins, obstruction, pressure

ID, recognize, and describe the following systemic manifestations and their causes of cellular injury: Lactate dehydrogenase

Release from RBC, liver, kidney, and skeletal muscle into bloodstream (sign of tissue damage)

ID, recognize, and describe the following systemic manifestations and their causes of cellular injury: Creatinine kinase

Release from skeletal muscle, brain, and heart (usually indicative of muscle tissue damage)

Define, describe, and discern the causes and features of necrosis and apoptosis

Apoptosis: Normal, as in menses, aging. Genetically triggered, little or no inflammation, only a few scattered cells, part of normal cellular relations. Programmed cellular death of unwanted cell populations. (Dysregulated - is excessive or insufficient, can lead to cancer, autoimmune disorders, neurodegenerative diseases, and ischemic injury

Necrosis: Induced by injury, surrounding inflammatory response, and large areas of contiguous cells involved. Cell death with severe swelling & breakdown of organelles.

ID and discern the function of the plasma membrane (lipid bilayer) and its components, including lipids, “proteins”, and carbohydrates

Perform membrane tasks

Glycoproteins: Cell surface makers

Cell Adhesion Molecules (CAM): Cell membrane adhesion to cytoskeletons and other cells/surface

Transport Channels: no energy

ID and discern the function of the plasma membrane (lipid bilayer) and its components, including lipids, proteins, and “carbohydrates”

Important for immune response, from distincitve cellular markers allowing for recognition