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who developed functionalism as a s____ theory of s___ in the what era
Functionalism is a macro, structural theory. what does this mean?
It focuses on what as a whole and how these n___ shape what
It is also a consensus theory. What does this mean
Functionalism is a m___ theory that shares which goals
Functionalists believe that we can obtain what and that this knowledge can be used to do what
Talcott Parsons developed functionalism as a systematic theory of society in the mid 20th century
Functionalism is a macro, structural theory. Macro – looks at the big picture of society, not individual people. Structural – focuses on how different parts of society are organised and work together.
It focuses on the needs of the social system as a whole and how these needs shape all the main features of society.
It is also a consensus theory. It sees society as based on a consensus or agreement among its members about values, goals and rules.
Functionalism is a modernist theory t that shares the goals of the Enlightenment project.
Functionalists believe that we can obtain true knowledge of the functioning of society and that this knowledge can be used to improve society.
society as a system - organic analogy
What is Parsons organic analogy ?
society as a system - organic analogy
parsons identifies similarities between society and a biological organism
society as a system - organic analogy
Parsons (1970) identifies three similarities between society and a biological organism.- what are they?
both systems
both have system needs
both have functions
society as a system - organic analogy
both are systems
Organisms, such as the human body, and societies are both s___-r___ systems of i___-r___ ,i____ parts that fit together in fixed ways.
In the body, what are these parts
In society, what are these parts
society as a system - organic analogy
both are systems
Organisms, such as the human body, and societies are both self-regulating systems of inter-related,interdependent parts that fit together in fixed ways.
In the body, these are organs, cells etc.
In society, these are institutions (the education system, the family and individual roles (such as teacher, mother)
society as a system - organic analogy
both have system needs
Organisms have needs, such as what
what happens If these are not met,
Functionalists see the social system as having basic needs that must be met if it is to survive. give an example
society as a system - organic analogy
both have system needs
Organisms have needs, such as nutrition
If these are not met, the organism will die.
Functionalists see the social system as having basic needs that must be met if it is to survive. For example, its members must be socialised if society is to continue.
society as a system - organic analogy
both have functions
For functionalists, the function of any part of a system is what and thus ensuring what
what is the example in the body
what is the example in society
society as a system - organic analogy
both have functions
For functionalists, the function of any part of a system is the contribution it makes to meeting the system's needs and thus ensuring its survival.
For example, the circulatory system of the body carries nutrients and oxygen to the tissues.
Similarly, the economy helps maintain the social system by meeting
the need for food and shelter.
society as a system - value consensus and social order
According to Parsons what is value consensus and how is social order kept ?
social order is achieved through a shared culture in a 'central value system'
a culture is a set of norms, values, beliefs and goals shared by members of society
social order is only possible if we conform to such norms and values
parsons calls this value consensus
society as a system - integration of individuals
The basic function of the value consensus is therefore to make social order possible- It does this by integrating individuals into what, thereby doing what
society as a system - integration of individuals
The basic function of the value consensus is therefore to make social order possible- It does this by integrating individuals into the social system, thereby directing them towards meeting the system's needs.
society as a system - integration of individuals
For Parsons, the system has two mechanisms for ensuring
that individuals conform to shared norms and meet the
system's needs- what are they and explain them
Socialisation - Through the socialisation process, individuals internalise the system's norms and values so that society becomes part of their personality structure. Different agencies of socialisation, such as the family, education , media contribute to this process.
Social control- Positive sanctions reward conformity, while negative ones punish deviance. For example, if the value system stresses individual achievement through educational success, those who conform may be rewarded with college diplomas, while those who deviate by dropping out may be stigmatised as layabouts.
society as a system - integration of individuals
Because individuals are i, through socialisation and social control, into a shared value system, how is their behaviour like
The behaviour of each individual will be relatively p___ and s___, allowing cooperation between them.
This integration into the shared normative order makes orderly social life possible.
society as a system - integration of individuals
Because individuals are integrated, through socialisation and social control, into a shared value system, their behaviour is oriented towards pursuing society's shared goals and meeting its needs.
The behaviour of each individual will be relatively predictable and stable, allowing cooperation between them.
This integration into the shared normative order makes orderly social life possible.
society as a system - the parts of the social system
We can take a 'b___ b___' approach to describing Parsons' model of the social system.
At the bottom, there is what
These norms come in ‘'Clusters' called status-roles.
what is a status + an example
what is are Roles + an example
Status-roles also come in c____, known as i___. For example, using the family, explain
For example, what type part of the economic sub-system, whose function is to meet society's material needs. Finally, these sub-systems together make up the social system as a whole.
society as a system - the parts of the social system
We can take a 'building block' approach to describing Parsons' model of the social system.
At the bottom, we have individual actions. Each action we perform is governed by specific norms or rules.
These norms come in ‘'Clusters' called status-roles.
Statuses are the positions that exist in a given social system; for example, 'teacher'. Roles are sets of norms that tell us how the occupant of a status must carry out their duties - for example, teachers must not show favouritism, must be knowledgeable and so on.
Status-roles also come in clusters, known as institutions. For example, the family is an institution made up of the related roles of father, mother, child, etc. In turn, related institutions are grouped together into sub-systems. For example, shops, farms, factories, banks and so on all form part of the economic sub-system, whose function is to meet society's material needs. Finally, these sub-systems together make up the social system as a whole.
society as a system - the systems needs
Parsons identities four basic needs, sometimes known as the ‘AGIL schema ’ - what are they and through which subsystem are they met
society as a system - the systems needs
Adaptation - The social system meets its members' material needs through the economic sub-system
Goal attainment - Society needs to set goals and allocate resources to achieve them. This is the function of the political sub-system, through institutions such as parliament.
Integration - The different parts of the system must be integrated together to pursue shared goals. This is the role of the sub-system of religion, education and the media.
Latency - processes that maintain society over time. The kinship sub-system provides pattern maintenance (socialising individuals to go on performing the roles society requires) and tension management (a place to 'let off steam' after the stresses of work).
society as a system - the systems needs
Parsons describes adaptation and goal attainment as instrumental needs - instrumental refers to actions or systems that help achieve essential goals, like producing food to support the population.
he describes integration and latency as expressive needs, since they involve managing, expressing, or maintaining people’s feelings and relationships within society.
society as a system - the systems needs
Parsons describes which two system needs as instrumental needs - instrumental refers to what
he describes which two system needs as expressive needs, since they involve what
society as a system - social change
According to Parsons what are the two types of society ? And what norms come with them
1. Traditional society : where the norms are individuals are expected to put collective interests first, status is ascribed and they are judged by particularistic standards (such as different laws for nobles and commoners),affective neutrality
2. Modern society :where the norms are we pursue our individual self-interest, achieve our status and are all judged by the same universalistic standards, affectivity
society as a system - social change
Parsons, change in societies ( from traditional to modern) is a gradual, process of increasing complexity and structural differentiation.
The what analogy is relevant here - organisms have evolved from what to what
similarly, societies move from simple to complex structures. give an example of how this happened in society
parson calls this what
society as a system - social change
Parsons says change in societies ( from traditional to modern) is a gradual evolutionary process of increasing complexity and structural differentiation.
The organic analogy is relevant here - Organisms have evolved from simple structures like amoebas, where a single cell performs all the essential functions to complex organisms with many different parts performing specialised functions
similarly, societies move from simple to complex structures. give an example of how this happened in society for example, in traditional society, - the kinship system - performs many functions. It organises production and consumption (adaptation), often provides political leadership (goal attainment), socialises its members (iatency) and performs religious functions (integration).
However, as societies develop, the kinship system loses these functions - to factories, political parties, schools, churches
parson calls this structural differentiation in which society’s develop meeting different needs and having different functions
society as a system - social change
In addition to the process of structural differentiation. Parsons also sees gradual change occurring through m___\d____) e___.
As a change occurs in one part of the system, it produces what
give the way this works with industry and family
society as a system - social change
In addition to the process of structural differentiation.Parsons also sees gradual change occurring through moving/dynamic equilibrium.
As a change occurs in one part of the system, it produces compensatory changes in other parts.
Thus, the rise of industry brings a change in the family from extended to nuclear. In this way society gradually changes from one type to another.
〤- merton’s internal critique ( within functionalism) of functionalism
Within functionalism, the most significant criticisms come from Robert K. Merton
(1968). He criticises three key assumptions of Parsons- what are these
indispensability
functional unity
universal functionalism
〤- merton’s internal critique ( within functionalism) of functionalism
explain the criticism of indispensability
Parsons assumes that everything is functionally indispensable in its existing form. (every part of society is necessary and works best exactly the way it is)
Merton argues that this is just an untested assumption and he points to the possibility of 'functional alternatives.
For example, Parsons assumes that primary socialisation is best performed by the nuclear family, but it may be that one-parent families or communes do it just as well or better.
〤- merton’s internal critique ( within functionalism) of functionalism
explain the criticism of functional unity
Parsons assumes that all parts of society are tightly integrated into a single whole or ‘unity' and that each part is functional for all the rest.
Similarly, he assumes that change in one part will have a ‘knock-on' effect on all other parts.
However, neither of these assumptions is necessarily true. - Complex modern societies have many parts, some of which may be only distantly 'related' to one another.
Instead of functional unity, some parts may have 'functional autonomy' (independence) from others.
〤- merton’s internal critique ( within functionalism) of functionalism
explain the criticism universal functionalism
Parsons assumes that everything in society performs a positive function for society as a whole.
Yet some things may be functional for some groups and dysfunctional for others.
The idea of dysfunction (negative function) introduces a neglected note into functionalism, by suggesting that there may be conflicts of interest and that some groups may have the power to keep arrangements in place that benefit them at the expense of others.
〤- merton’s internal critique ( within functionalism) of functionalism
what is The central point behind Merton's criticisms
〤- merton’s internal critique ( within functionalism) of functionalism
The central point behind Merton's criticisms is that we cannot simply assume, as Parsons does, that society is always and necessarily a smooth-running, well-integrated system.
〤- merton’s manifest and latent functions
Merton also contributes a useful distinction between ‘'manifest' and 'latent' functions
He cites the example of what group of people. This is its whatfunction. From a s___ viewpoint, this is unlikely to achieve its goal.
However, the ritual may also have what function - such as promoting a sense of s___ in times of h___, when individuals might be tempted to look after themselves at the expense of others.
Merton's distinction is therefore useful in helping to reveal the hidden connections between social phenomena, which the actors themselves may not be aware of.
〤- merton’s manifest and latent functions
Merton also contributes a useful distinction between ‘'manifest' and 'latent' functions
He cites the example of the Hopi Indians who, in times of drought, perform a rain-dance with the aim of magically producing rain. This is its manifest or intended function. From a scientific viewpoint, of course, this is unlikely to achieve its goal.
However, the ritual may also have an unintended or latent function - such as promoting a sense of solidarity in times of hardship, when individuals might be tempted to look after themselves at the expense of others.
Merton's distinction is therefore useful in helping to reveal the hidden connections between social phenomena, which the actors themselves may not be aware of.
〤- logical perspective criiticism
explain the criticism of Teleology
explain the criticism of Functionalism being
〤- logical perspective criticism
Functionalists state that things exist because of their function. E.g. the family exists to socialise children. However, a real explanation should identify something's cause (which has to come before the effect/function). This is called Teleology
Functionalism is also criticised for being unscientific. For many, a theory is only considered scientific if it can be tested and possibly proven wrong.
Yet this is not true of functionalism. For example, functionalists see deviance as both dysfunctional (since society's needs can only be met if individuals conform) and functional (for example by reinforcing social solidarity).
If deviance is both functional and dysfunctional, then the theory cannot be disproved and is unscientific.
〤- conflict perspective criticism
Society is not h___. rather, it is what
Stability is simply the result of what
In this view, 'shared' values are merely a what
how is This view is actually harmful
〤- conflict perspective criticism
Society is not harmonious. rather, it is based on exploitation and divided into classes with conflicting interests and unequal power.
Stability is simply the result of the dominant class being able to prevent change by using coercion (force) or ideological manipulation.
In this view, 'shared' values are merely a cloak concealing the interests of the dominant class.
This view is actually harmful as it legitimises the status quo and inequality.
〤- conflict perspective criticism
D____ W___ (1961) criticises functionalism's 'o___-s____' or d___ view of the individual.
He describes the functionalist view as follows: the social system do what Individuals have no what - they are mere p____ whose strings are pulled by the social system
from an action perspective this is fundamentally mistaken. While functionalism sees human beings as shaped by society, the action approach believes what
conflict perspective criticism
Dennis Wrong (1961) criticises functionalism's 'over-socialised' or deterministic view of the individual.
He describes the functionalist view as follows: the social system uses socialisation to shape people's behaviour so that they will meet the system's needs by performing their prescribed roles. Individuals have no free will or choice - they are mere puppets whose strings are pulled by the social system
from an action perspective this is fundamentally mistaken. While functionalism sees human beings as shaped by society, the action approach takes the opposite view - that individuals create society by their interactions.
〤- post-modernism perspective criticism
explain what a postmodernist would say
Today’s society is so fragmented that no meta-narrative can explain society