functionalism

• who developed functionalism as a s____ theory of s___ in the what era

• Functionalism is a macro, structural theory. what does this mean?

• It focuses on what as a whole and how these n___ shape what

• It is also a consensus theory. What does this mean

• Functionalism is a m___ theory that shares which goals

• Functionalists believe that we can obtain what and that this knowledge can be used to do what

• Talcott Parsons developed functionalism as a systematic theory of society in the mid 20th century

• Functionalism is a macro, structural theory. Macro – looks at the big picture of society, not individual people. Structural – focuses on how different parts of society are organised and work together.

• It focuses on the needs of the social system as a whole and how these needs shape all the main features of society.

• It is also a consensus theory. It sees society as based on a consensus or agreement among its members about values, goals and rules.

• Functionalism is a modernist theory t that shares the goals of the Enlightenment project.

• Functionalists believe that we can obtain true knowledge of the functioning of society and that this knowledge can be used to improve society.

society as a system - organic analogy

What is Parsons organic analogy ?

society as a system - organic analogy

• parsons identifies similarities between society and a biological organism

society as a system - organic analogy

Parsons (1970) identifies three similarities between society and a biological organism.- what are they?

1. both systems

2. both have system needs

3. both have functions

society as a system - organic analogy

both are systems

• Organisms, such as the human body, and societies are both s___-r___ systems of i___-r___ ,i____ parts that fit together in fixed ways.

• In the body, what are these parts

• In society, what are these parts

society as a system - organic analogy

both are systems

• Organisms, such as the human body, and societies are both self-regulating systems of inter-related,interdependent parts that fit together in fixed ways.

• In the body, these are organs, cells etc.

• In society, these are institutions (the education system, the family and individual roles (such as teacher, mother)

society as a system - organic analogy

both have system needs

• Organisms have needs, such as what

• what happens If these are not met,

• Functionalists see the social system as having basic needs that must be met if it is to survive. give an example

society as a system - organic analogy

both have system needs

• Organisms have needs, such as nutrition

• If these are not met, the organism will die.

• Functionalists see the social system as having basic needs that must be met if it is to survive. For example, its members must be socialised if society is to continue.

society as a system - organic analogy

both have functions

• For functionalists, the function of any part of a system is what and thus ensuring what

• what is the example in the body

• what is the example in society

society as a system - organic analogy

both have functions

• For functionalists, the function of any part of a system is the contribution it makes to meeting the system's needs and thus ensuring its survival.

• For example, the circulatory system of the body carries nutrients and oxygen to the tissues.

• Similarly, the economy helps maintain the social system by meeting

  the need for food and shelter.

society as a system - value consensus and social order

• According to Parsons what is value consensus and how is social order kept ?

• social order is achieved through a shared culture in a 'central value system'

• a culture is a set of norms, values, beliefs and goals shared by members of society

• social order is only possible if we conform to such norms and values

• parsons calls this value consensus

society as a system - integration of individuals

• The basic function of the value consensus is therefore to make social order possible- It does this by integrating individuals into what, thereby doing what

society as a system - integration of individuals

• The basic function of the value consensus is therefore to make social order possible- It does this by integrating individuals into the social system, thereby directing them towards meeting the system's needs.

society as a system - integration of individuals

• For Parsons, the system has two mechanisms for ensuring

  that individuals conform to shared norms and meet the

  system's needs- what are they and explain them

1. Socialisation - Through the socialisation process, individuals internalise the system's norms and values so that society becomes part of their personality structure. Different agencies of socialisation, such as the family, education , media contribute to this process.

2. Social control- Positive sanctions reward conformity, while negative ones punish deviance. For example, if the value system stresses individual achievement through educational success, those who conform may be rewarded with college diplomas, while those who deviate by dropping out may be stigmatised as layabouts.

society as a system - integration of individuals

• Because individuals are i, through socialisation and social control, into a shared value system, how is their behaviour like

• The behaviour of each individual will be relatively p___ and s___, allowing cooperation between them.

• This integration into the shared normative order makes orderly social life possible.

society as a system - integration of individuals

• Because individuals are integrated, through socialisation and social control, into a shared value system, their behaviour is oriented towards pursuing society's shared goals and meeting its needs.

• The behaviour of each individual will be relatively predictable and stable, allowing cooperation between them.

• This integration into the shared normative order makes orderly social life possible.

society as a system - the parts of the social system

• We can take a 'b___ b___' approach to describing Parsons' model of the social system.

• At the bottom, there is what

• These norms come in ‘'Clusters' called status-roles.

• what is a status + an example

• what is are Roles + an example

• Status-roles also come in c____, known as i___. For example, using the family, explain

• For example, what type part of the economic sub-system, whose function is to meet society's material needs. Finally, these sub-systems together make up the social system as a whole.

society as a system - the parts of the social system

• We can take a 'building block' approach to describing Parsons' model of the social system.

• At the bottom, we have individual actions. Each action we perform is governed by specific norms or rules.

• These norms come in ‘'Clusters' called status-roles.

• Statuses are the positions that exist in a given social system; for example, 'teacher'. Roles are sets of norms that tell us how the occupant of a status must carry out their duties - for example, teachers must not show favouritism, must be knowledgeable and so on.

• Status-roles also come in clusters, known as institutions. For example, the family is an institution made up of the related roles of father, mother, child, etc. In turn, related institutions are grouped together into sub-systems. For example, shops, farms, factories, banks and so on all form part of the economic sub-system, whose function is to meet society's material needs. Finally, these sub-systems together make up the social system as a whole.

society as a system - the systems needs

Parsons identities four basic needs, sometimes known as the ‘AGIL schema ’ - what are they and through which subsystem are they met

society as a system - the systems needs

1. Adaptation - The social system meets its members' material needs through the economic sub-system

2. Goal attainment - Society needs to set goals and allocate resources to achieve them. This is the function of the political sub-system, through institutions such as parliament.

3. Integration - The different parts of the system must be integrated together to pursue shared goals. This is the role of the sub-system of religion, education and the media.

4. Latency - processes that maintain society over time. The kinship sub-system provides pattern maintenance (socialising individuals to go on performing the roles society requires) and tension management (a place to 'let off steam' after the stresses of work).

society as a system - the systems needs

• Parsons describes adaptation and goal attainment as instrumental needs - instrumental refers to actions or systems that help achieve essential goals, like producing food to support the population.

• he describes integration and latency as expressive needs, since they involve managing, expressing, or maintaining people’s feelings and relationships within society.

society as a system - the systems needs

• Parsons describes which two system needs as instrumental needs - instrumental refers to what

• he describes which two system needs as expressive needs, since they involve what

society as a system - social change

• According to Parsons what are the two types of society ? And what norms come with them

1. Traditional society : where the norms are individuals are expected to put collective interests first, status is ascribed and they are judged by particularistic standards (such as different laws for nobles and commoners),affective neutrality
2. Modern society :where the norms are we pursue our individual self-interest, achieve our status and are all judged by the same universalistic standards, affectivity

society as a system - social change

• Parsons, change in societies ( from traditional to modern) is a gradual, process of increasing complexity and structural differentiation.

• The what analogy is relevant here - organisms have evolved from what to what

• similarly, societies move from simple to complex structures. give an example of how this happened in society

• parson calls this what

society as a system - social change

• Parsons says change in societies ( from traditional to modern) is a gradual evolutionary process of increasing complexity and structural differentiation.

• The organic analogy is relevant here - Organisms have evolved from simple structures like amoebas, where a single cell performs all the essential functions to complex organisms with many different parts performing specialised functions

• similarly, societies move from simple to complex structures. give an example of how this happened in society for example, in traditional society, - the kinship system - performs many functions. It organises production and consumption (adaptation), often provides political leadership (goal attainment), socialises its members (iatency) and performs religious functions (integration).

• However, as societies develop, the kinship system loses these functions - to factories, political parties, schools, churches

• parson calls this structural differentiation in which society’s develop meeting different needs and having different functions

society as a system - social change

• In addition to the process of structural differentiation. Parsons also sees gradual change occurring through m___\d____) e___.

• As a change occurs in one part of the system, it produces what

• give the way this works with industry and family

society as a system - social change

• In addition to the process of structural differentiation.Parsons also sees gradual change occurring through moving/dynamic equilibrium.

• As a change occurs in one part of the system, it produces compensatory changes in other parts.

• Thus, the rise of industry brings a change in the family from extended to nuclear. In this way society gradually changes from one type to another.

〤- merton’s internal critique ( within functionalism) of functionalism

• Within functionalism, the most significant criticisms come from Robert K. Merton

  (1968). He criticises three key assumptions of Parsons- what are these

• indispensability

• functional unity

• universal functionalism

〤- merton’s internal critique ( within functionalism) of functionalism

explain the criticism of indispensability

• Parsons assumes that everything is functionally indispensable in its existing form. (every part of society is necessary and works best exactly the way it is)

• Merton argues that this is just an untested assumption and he points to the possibility of 'functional alternatives.

• For example, Parsons assumes that primary socialisation is best performed by the nuclear family, but it may be that one-parent families or communes do it just as well or better.

〤- merton’s internal critique ( within functionalism) of functionalism

explain the criticism of functional unity

• Parsons assumes that all parts of society are tightly integrated into a single whole or ‘unity' and that each part is functional for all the rest.

• Similarly, he assumes that change in one part will have a ‘knock-on' effect on all other parts.

• However, neither of these assumptions is necessarily true. - Complex modern societies have many parts, some of which may be only distantly 'related' to one another.

• Instead of functional unity, some parts may have 'functional autonomy' (independence) from others.

〤- merton’s internal critique ( within functionalism) of functionalism

explain the criticism universal functionalism

• Parsons assumes that everything in society performs a positive function for society as a whole.

• Yet some things may be functional for some groups and dysfunctional for others.

• The idea of dysfunction (negative function) introduces a neglected note into functionalism, by suggesting that there may be conflicts of interest and that some groups may have the power to keep arrangements in place that benefit them at the expense of others.

〤- merton’s internal critique ( within functionalism) of functionalism

what is The central point behind Merton's criticisms

〤- merton’s internal critique ( within functionalism) of functionalism

• The central point behind Merton's criticisms is that we cannot simply assume, as Parsons does, that society is always and necessarily a smooth-running, well-integrated system.

〤- merton’s manifest and latent functions

• Merton also contributes a useful distinction between ‘'manifest' and 'latent' functions

• He cites the example of what group of people. This is its whatfunction. From a s___ viewpoint, this is unlikely to achieve its goal.

• However, the ritual may also have what function - such as promoting a sense of s___ in times of h___, when individuals might be tempted to look after themselves at the expense of others.

• Merton's distinction is therefore useful in helping to reveal the hidden connections between social phenomena, which the actors themselves may not be aware of.

〤- merton’s manifest and latent functions

• Merton also contributes a useful distinction between ‘'manifest' and 'latent' functions

• He cites the example of the Hopi Indians who, in times of drought, perform a rain-dance with the aim of magically producing rain. This is its manifest or intended function. From a scientific viewpoint, of course, this is unlikely to achieve its goal.

• However, the ritual may also have an unintended or latent function - such as promoting a sense of solidarity in times of hardship, when individuals might be tempted to look after themselves at the expense of others.

• Merton's distinction is therefore useful in helping to reveal the hidden connections between social phenomena, which the actors themselves may not be aware of.

〤- logical perspective criiticism

• explain the criticism of Teleology

• explain the criticism of Functionalism being

〤- logical perspective criticism

• Functionalists state that things exist because of their function. E.g. the family exists to socialise children. However, a real explanation should identify something's cause (which has to come before the effect/function). This is called Teleology

• Functionalism is also criticised for being unscientific. For many, a theory is only considered scientific if it can be tested and possibly proven wrong.

• Yet this is not true of functionalism. For example, functionalists see deviance as both dysfunctional (since society's needs can only be met if individuals conform) and functional (for example by reinforcing social solidarity).

• If deviance is both functional and dysfunctional, then the theory cannot be disproved and is unscientific.

〤- conflict perspective criticism

• Society is not h___. rather, it is what

• Stability is simply the result of what

• In this view, 'shared' values are merely a what

• how is This view is actually harmful

〤- conflict perspective criticism

• Society is not harmonious. rather, it is based on exploitation and divided into classes with conflicting interests and unequal power.

• Stability is simply the result of the dominant class being able to prevent change by using coercion (force) or ideological manipulation.

• In this view, 'shared' values are merely a cloak concealing the interests of the dominant class.

• This view is actually harmful as it legitimises the status quo and inequality.

〤- conflict perspective criticism

• D____ W___ (1961) criticises functionalism's 'o___-s____' or d___ view of the individual.

• He describes the functionalist view as follows: the social system do what Individuals have no what - they are mere p____ whose strings are pulled by the social system

• from an action perspective this is fundamentally mistaken. While functionalism sees human beings as shaped by society, the action approach believes what

conflict perspective criticism

• Dennis Wrong (1961) criticises functionalism's 'over-socialised' or deterministic view of the individual.

• He describes the functionalist view as follows: the social system uses socialisation to shape people's behaviour so that they will meet the system's needs by performing their prescribed roles. Individuals have no free will or choice - they are mere puppets whose strings are pulled by the social system

• from an action perspective this is fundamentally mistaken. While functionalism sees human beings as shaped by society, the action approach takes the opposite view - that individuals create society by their interactions.

〤- post-modernism perspective criticism

explain what a postmodernist would say

Today’s society is so fragmented that no meta-narrative can explain society