3.1.1-2 - Monomers and polymers + Carbohydrates

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A-Level Biology

AQA

10th

Last updated 1:01 PM on 2/19/25
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28 Terms

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Polymers

Large, complex molecules made of long chains of monomers

<p><strong>Large</strong>, <strong>complex</strong> <strong>molecules</strong> made of <strong>long chains</strong> of <strong>monomers</strong></p>
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Monomers

Small, basic molecular units

<p><strong>Small</strong>, <strong>basic</strong> <strong>molecular units</strong></p>
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Monomer examples

Monosaccharides, amino acids, nucleotides

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Carbohydates contain ____

C, H, O

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Monosaccharide examples

Glucose, fructose, galactose

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Carbohydrates are (mono/polysaccharides)

Polysaccharides

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Glucose

Hexose sugar - 6 C atoms per molecule

Has 2 isomers - alpha (α) and beta (β)

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α-glucose structure

(alpha - H is on top)

<p>(alpha - H is <u>on top</u>)</p>
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β-glucose structure

(beta - H is on bottom)

<p>(beta - H is <u>on bottom</u>)</p>
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Condensation reaction

Two molecules join with formation of new chemical bond

+ water molecule released

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Monosaccharides are joined by ____

condensation reactions

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Glycosidic bond

Bond between two monosaccharides

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Sucrose

Disaccharide formed by glucose + fructose (via condensation reaction)

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Lactose

Disaccharide formed by glucose + galactose (via condensation reaction)

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Maltose

Disaccharide formed by glucose + glucose (via condensation reaction)

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Hyrolysis reactions

Breaking of chemical bond between monomers using water molecule

<p><strong>Breaking </strong>of <strong>chemical bond </strong>between monomers using <strong>water molecule</strong></p>
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What is starch made of?

Mixture of amylose + amylopectin - polysaccharides of α-glucose

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Plants store excess glucose as ____

starch

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Why is starch good for storage?

Insoluble in water → doesn’t affect water potential

  • → doesn’t cause water to enter cells by osmosis

  • → good for storage

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Amylose

  • Long, unbranched chain of α-glucose

  • Angles of glycosidic bonds → coiled structure

    • → compact

    • → good for storage

<ul><li><p>Long, <strong>unbranched</strong> chain of α-glucose</p></li><li><p>Angles of glycosidic bonds → <strong>coiled structure</strong></p><ul><li><p>→ <strong>compact</strong></p></li><li><p>→ <strong>good for storage</strong></p></li></ul></li></ul><p></p>
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Amylopectin

  • Long, branched chain of α-glucose

  • Side branches allow enzymes that break down molecule to reach glycosidic bonds easily

    • → glucose can be released quickly

<ul><li><p>Long, <strong>branched</strong> chain of α-glucose</p></li><li><p><strong>Side branches</strong> allow <strong>enzymes</strong> that break down molecule to reach <strong>glycosidic bonds easily</strong></p><ul><li><p>→ glucose can be <strong>released quickly</strong></p></li></ul></li></ul><p></p>
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Glycogen

  • Polysaccharide of α-glucose

  • Animals store excess glucose as glycogen

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Glycogen structure

  • Highly branched structure

    • → stored glucose can be released quickly

  • Compact

    • → good for storage

<ul><li><p><strong>Highly branched </strong>structure</p><ul><li><p>→ stored glucose can be <strong>released quickly</strong></p></li></ul></li><li><p><strong>Compact</strong></p><ul><li><p><strong>→ </strong>good for <strong>storage</strong></p></li></ul></li></ul><p></p>
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Cellulose

  • Made of long, unbranched chains of β-glucose

  • When β-glucose molecules bond, they form straight cellulose chains

  • Cellulose chains linked by H bonds to form microfibrils (strong fibres)

    • → strong fibres make cellulose a good structural support for cells

<ul><li><p>Made of <strong>long</strong>, <strong>unbranched</strong> chains of <strong>β-glucose</strong></p></li><li><p>When <strong>β-glucose</strong> molecules <strong>bond</strong>, they form straight cellulose chains</p></li><li><p>Cellulose chains linked by <strong>H bonds</strong> to form <strong>microfibrils</strong> (strong fibres)</p><ul><li><p>→ strong fibres make cellulose a good <strong>structural support</strong> for cells</p></li></ul></li></ul><p></p>
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Which sugars are reducing sugars?

All monosaccharides + some disaccharides (e.g. maltose, lactose)

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Test for reducing sugars

  1. Add Benedict’s reagent (blue) to sample + heat in water bath at 100ᵒC

  2. If positive test, coloured ppt forms

    • Higher conc. of reducing sugar = further colour change

<ol><li><p>Add <strong>Benedict’s reagent</strong> (<strong>blue</strong>) to sample + <strong>heat </strong>in water bath at <strong>100</strong><span><strong>ᵒC</strong></span></p></li><li><p>If <strong>positive</strong> test, <strong>coloured ppt</strong> forms</p><ul><li><p>Higher conc. of reducing sugar = further colour change</p></li></ul></li></ol><p></p>
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Test for non-reducing sugars

If reducing sugar test negative, must do non-reducing sugar test

  1. Get new sample of test solution, add dilute hydrochloric acid + heat in water bath at 100ᵒC

  2. Add sodium hydrogencarbonate to neutralise

  3. Carry out Benedict’s test (reducing sugar test)

  4. If positive test, coloured ppt forms

  5. If negative, solution stays blue → no sugar in solution

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Test for starch

  1. Add iodine dissolved in potassium iodide solution to sample

  2. If positive test, sample changes from browny-orange → blue-black