Sociology 111: Unit Two (Social Theory)

Content from Class for unit 2, and unit 2 readings

what is a theory?

a theory is to explain or interpret the social world

what is social theory?

a plausible explanation of how facts or events are related. attempts to explain or interpret the social world. how facts and events are related in the social world.

• always looking at the world from a particular perspective

• always trying to make sense of things we encounter based on the perspective we take.

why study social theories?

theoretical frameworks will put constraints on the kinds of things you are curious about. each theory provides a different perspective on different ideas and is different than the common sense.

theoretical frameworks

offer a systematic approach and interpretations of how we make sense of a particular topic

macrosociology

try to understand society as a whole, interested in large scale phenomena (structure, institutions, social forces).

what are some applications for macrosociology?

social inequality, social justice, social stability, social cohesion

what culture influences macrosociology?

European and Canadian influence

what theorists take a macrosociological approach?

Marx and Durkheim

Microsociology

attempt to understand individuals relationships with each other etc. - small scale phenomena

what are some applications of microsociology?

relationships, interactions, meetings, and interpretations that individuals have on topics.

what theorists take microsociological approaches?

Mead, Cooley, Blume

what culture influences microsociology?

American influence

ontology

a theory of existence - what is real, what exists, etc. “what is”

epistemology

a theory of knowledge - what is knowable and how we know or decide if something is knowledge

why are epistemology and ontology important?

fundamental to how we make sense of the world

what are the theoretical frameworks?

functionalism, conflict theory, symbolic interactionism, feminisms

how is functionalism organized?

dynamic system

how does functionalism define modern societies?

modern societies operate through organic solidarity. modern society is characterized by a very high division of labor - like levels of cell organization.

how does functionalism define non modern societies?

non modern societies operate through mechanical solidarity

functionalism

different people and different groups of people perform different functions. all these different institutions work together for society to function. emphasis on cooperation, and consensus on norms and values.

critiques of functionalism

has difficulty accounting for social change

key theorists of functionalism

Emile Durkheim (1858-1916)

what was Durkheim’s view of functionalism?

argued that human actions should be understood as originating from the collective, not the individual - main drive of behavior is external to the individual (outlives, defines, precedes the individual). 

collective conscience

reasons external to the individual that helps to explain patterns across different people

what is an example of collective conscience?

suicide

integration

describes the extent to which an individual feels that they are connected to others in social networks

regulation

extent to which an individual feels that they are connected to others in social networks

what happens when integration or regulation are either too high or too low?

they are more likely to die by suicide - when people feel lack of control over what happens to them, they will commit altruistic suicide.

anomie

a state of normlessness - lack of goals and creates a sense of confusion. feel as though there are no rules.

what is important to consider according to functionalism?

important to look at social facts - larger structures of society and norms that shape individuals actions.

is conflict theory macro or micro sociology?

macro sociological orientation

conflict theory

society is fundamentally based upon economic inequality among classes of people and there is a constant struggle for power over scarce resources. conflict theory states that there is a conflict - not that there should be one.

main concern of conflict theory

why is there inequality and why is it so persistent?

what does conflict theory place an emphasis on?

competition and struggle for power among classes

what is the critique of conflict theory?

difficulty accounting for cooperation and consensus - people do not always agree or disagree on things, sometimes it is unpredictable.

who is the key theorist of conflict theory?

Karl Marx (1818-1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820-1895)

dialectical materialism

history/society as a result of contradictions in the material conditions

dialect

thesis (original situation) - antithesis (opposition) - synthesis (new situation). the synthesis becomes the new thesis and the process repeats.

class conflict

proletariat vs bourgeoise

exploitation

the difference between workers pay and wealth they create for owners - fundamental opposition

alienation

process by which workers are disconnected from the things they produce, other workers, and themselves. Workers feel like they are no longer able to see their connection to the things they are producing. no longer in touch with themselves as human beings.

dominant ideology

ideology that comes from the dominant (rulers/capitalists) class to make sense of capitalism etc.

false consciousness

believing in a system that is not actually in your best interest (that oppresses one). not only believing it, but accepting it. feeling as though there is no other option.

base

material and economic foundation of society

superstructure

everything society values and aspires to

base -superstructure

when the base is different, the superstructure on top will also look different.

how does symbolic interactionism define society?

society is the sum of all of the interactions, communications, interpretations, perceptions, attitudes, meanings, subjective messages

is symbolic interactionism macro or micro sociological?

microsocial focus

symbolic interactionism

composed of individuals who are engaged in various types of symbolic communication.

what is the concern of symbolic interactionism?

the ways in which meanings are created, constructed, mediated, and changed by members of a group or society.

what is the emphasis of symbolic interactionism?

learning and interpretation - passing on and sharing subjective meanings to others.

what is the critique of symbolic interactionism?

difficulty accounting for social structures and the challenge of social change. producing meaningful, deep social change can be very difficult and can take generations.

key theorist of symbolic interactionism

Charles Horton Cooley (1864-1929)

Charles Horton Cooley

developed the concept of the “looking glass self” - develop self image through internalizing cues that we receive from other people. We attribute meaning to the cues received. as a result of this perceived meaning, we will adapt our behavior (whether they like you or not, etc.).

how can the looking glass self cause issues in relation to the self fulfilling prophecy?

who we are is influenced in some ways by social interaction and who we are surrounded by - this can cause issues when in relation to the “self fulfilling prophecy”.

self fulfilling prophecy

our sense of self is so deeply and fundamentally influenced by social interactions that we begin to become the person we believe other people see us as. Positively, if you are treated with respect/dignity (anything positive) and you believe people have a positive meaning for you, you may become this type of positive person people treat you as. this can also work in the reverse - causing you to live up to negative perceptions (people see me as a bad person, so I guess i might as well become a bad person).

are feminisms a macro or micro sociological focus?

macro and/or micro social focus

feminisms

most feminist perspectives understand society to be patriarchal. almost all known societies separate people into genders and place them on a hierarchy.

how does feminism define society?

society is hierarchical (unequal) - patriarchal/heteropatriarchal.  

heteropatriarchal

the idea that society is dominated by heterosexual males

what is the concern of feminism?

differences and inequality based on social categories (social identity)

first wave feminism

emphasis on suffrage and rights - concern over the fact that women were not able to vote etc. (women has the whole burden of being part of society, but none of the perks).

second wave feminism

emphasis that personal is political - women’s autonomy (ability to access the world outside of the domestic sphere). women were able to determine when they wanted to get pregnant, be free from workplace harassment, control their own bodies, etc.

third wave feminism

emphasis on multiplicity and fluidity - in terms of ones identity and the experiences they may have. not all women or men are the same. greater orientation towards the idea that there are more than two genders.

what are the critiques on feminism?

depends on the specific form of feminism. concerns of white women came to dominate (outshined lesbians, women of colour, etc.)

key theorists of feminism

Dorothy E. Smith (1926-2022) and bell hooks (1952-2021)

Dorothy Smith

“every day and every night world” - our regular and ordinary life contains different experiences which are the starting point of inquiry. emphasizes the importance of your own perspective (standpoint). the same set of regulations that produces men’s privilege, also produces women’s oppression. 

bell hooks

no universal human experience - black women are rarely recognized in scholarship as well as regular life as having a unique relationship to the social world - often lumped with either black men or white women. for some women, the home is a place where we see this patriarchal society, however for black women, the home is a place where they are free of the racism of the outside world. argues against the creation of universal assumptions of women’s and men’s experience. argues we need to take an intersectional approach - did not come up with the term intersectionality, but argues it.

intersectional approach

all of us occupy multiple social locations, have multiple social relations, and add nuance and complexity to the type of experience we have. 

can all thinking be explained by ontology and epistemology?

no - we cannot assume that all thinking and being for every society and culture around the world can be split into the universalizing western philosophical categories of ontology and epistemology.

universality

the phenomenon of one common reality shared by all members of a particular group.

empiricism

the idea that we can rely on observation and experience to derive knowledge about a phenomenon in the world

what are the dominant forms of ontology and epistemology?

those that operate to produce systems of power. we must ask if the Eurocentric ways of being and knowing are the only ones. western ontologies and epistemologies are treated with more significance than others.

indigenous place-thought

the non distinctive place where place and thought were never separated because they never could or can be separated.

what do knowledge and experiences shape?

every individual carries knowledge and experiences with them that shape their reactions to situations

pluriverse

there are multiple cosmologies that create a frame of how you interpret the world (ontology and epistemology) - “a world where many worlds fit”

epistemic diversity

a process that does not necessarily abandon the notion of universal knowledge for humanity; but which embraces it via a horizontal strategy of openness to dialogue among different epistemic traditions.

is SAD an issue worldwide?

no - SAD is westernized and not found in other countries, even ones with harsher winters than canada

biomedical gaze

the ways that science comes to shape and understand illness

SAD

recurrent depressive or bipolar disorder that manifests in late autumn and winter

medicalization

defining a problem in medical terms, using medical language to describe a problem, adopting a medical framework to understand a problem, or using a medical intervention to “treat’ it

why is the existence of SAD debateable?

it is hard to diagnose and measure, and it does not occur in all northern regions of the world.

norms are ______ relative

culturally

medical terms such as depression, anxiety, and addiction have become ________________

commonplace and are often used lightly

demedicalization

the opposite process of medicalization, where a condition escapes the shackles of medical labelling and control

what is the impact of labelling behaviors as mental illness?

renders them as individual pathologies that need to be fixed or cured

neurodiversity

the range of cognitive and behavioral functioning within human populations - should not be something that needs to be cured or fixed as they are natural, normal, and common variations among humans. beginning to include ADHD, anxiety, and depression.

does sadness need to be changed?

no - it is a normal part of human emotions, try to view winter sadness as an expected response to an external situation

what is normal sadness?

normal sadness is of proportional intensity and ends when the situation ends.

endogenous sadness

disordered sadness (sadness without a cause).

reactive sadness

has a cause and is considered normal human behavior

participant observation

a researcher takes part in the activities of the group being studied as both participant and observer, aiming to grasp the shared meanings that are at work and being enacted in social settings

material culture

tangible objects that reflect the ways and means of the group.

city

a relatively large, dense, and permanent settlement of socially heterogenous individuals, most oh whom are personally unacquainted.

interaction rituals

mundane but meaningful methods by which people honor and communicate their regard for one another. can renew a sense of solidarity in relation to conditions and a shared world that we must navigate alone and together.

mechanical solidarity

a type of social integration based on likeness and characteristic of more socially homogenous groups, rural life, and traditional societies.

organic solidarity

solidarity which exists in societies marked by a high division of labor, social heterogeneity, and interdependence. modern, urban, industrial societies exhibit this type of solidarity.

how is cohesion strengthened?

with organic solidarity, cohesion is strengthened by justice, while mechanical solidarity is strengthened by a common faith.

anthropomorphized

attributed with human characteristics and spirit (to non human thing)

collective effervescence

a ritualistic occasion where people congregate together in ways that generate “a sort of electricity that quickly launches them to an extraordinary height of exaltation”