all of rsm

what are the features of lab experiments

• conducted in a tightly controlled environment

• the experimenter deliberately manipulates the independant variable

• the experimenter measures the dependant variable

• the experimenter controls the extraneous variables

• standardised procedures are used

what are the strengths and weaknesses of lab experiments

strengths:

• high degree of control: all variables are controlled leading to greater accuracy and objectivity

• replication: easily repeated to check results

weaknessses:

• low external validity (ecological): it is urtificial and unlike real life so it is difficult ti generalise results to other settings. Labs can also be intimidating so people may not act normally

• demand characteristics: participants are aware they are being tested so may unconsciously alter their behaviour

what are the features of field experiments

• conducted in a more natural real world environment

• the experimenter deliberatly manipulates the independant variable

• the experimenter measures the dependant variable

• the experimenter controls some of the extraneous variables

what are the strengths and weaknesses of field experiments

strengths:

• greater external validity (ecological): take place in a real world setting therefore more natural behaviour will be displaced, therefore a higher chance of being able to generalise the results

• less chance of demand characteristics: takes place in a real world setting where participants are less likely to knoe they are taking part

weaknesses:

• difficult to establish cause and effect: less control over extraneous variables, therefore it is difficult to identify whether the IV affected the DV

• ethics: when participants are not aware they are in an experiment- no informed consent

what are the features of a natural experiment

• experimenter has no control over the independant variable

• the IV varies naturally

• the experimenter measures the dependant variable

• the experimenter has no control over the extraneous variables

what are the features of a quasi experiment

• IV is fixed naturally

• there is no choice of you being randomly allocated to one group

what are the strengths and weaknesses of a natural experiment

strengths:

• high ecological validity: naturally occuring in a natural environment

• no demand characteristics: participants may be unaware they are apart of the research

weaknesses:

• less control: lower control over variables, other variables may have caused the DV

• ethics: lack of informed consent

what are the three main ways in which you can allocate participants

• independent measures design

• repeated measures design

• matched pairs design

what is an independent measures design

involves using different people in each condition

what are the advantages and disadvantages of using an indepentent measures design

+

• quick and easy to set up

• avoids demand characteristics

• no order effects

-

• will need to have lots of participants

• may be some participant variability

what is a repeated measures design

involves using the same people in each condition

what are the advatages and disadvantages of using a repeated measures design

+

• fewer participants are required

• participant variability is held constant

-

• order effects are likely to be encountered

• demand characteristics

• time consuming

how do we overcome order effects

counterbalancing: where the group of participants are split into two and preform the tasks in a different order. this ensures each condition is tested first or second in equal amounts. this ensures that any differences are balanced out.

what is a matched pair design

involves using different participants in each condition, but participants are matched or paired with another who is similar in a number of variables

what are the advantages and disadvantages of using a matched pairs design

+

• avoids order effects and demand characteristics

• participant variability is partially controlled

-

• time consuming and difficult to achieve

• participants are never perfectly matched

• is one twin decides to drop out you have lost a pair of data

what are the different times of observaional techniques

• setting: controlled/ natural

• researcher: participant/non-participant

• consent: covert/ overt

lab/ controlled observational techniques

• artificial for participants

• +: high control over extranious variables/ easy to replicate

• -: low external validity as results are hard to generalise outside the lab setting

naturalistic observational techniques

• realistic for participants

• +: high external validity- results can be generalised to other environments

• -: replication is difficult as the study is done in a natural environment/ risk of uncontrolled extraneous variables

participant observational techniques

• researcher is part of the group being studied

• +: richer insight into the study and getting more details

• -: may lack objectivity as the researcher starts to asscoiate with the participants

non-participant observational techniques

• investigator observes from a distance with out being apart of it

• +: objective in nature. not effected by sibjective thoughts/ emotions

• -: may lack rich data as information is only observed from a distance

covert observational techniques

• participants are unaware of being observed

• +: increasing the validity of the study

• -: need informed consent to record behaviour

overt observational techniques

• participants are observed post their informed consent

• +: ethically possible

• -: participant variables may act as extraneous variable corrupting the purpose of the study

what is observer bias

observers tend to interpret data as per their expectations, feelings, thoughts, intent and emotions. this can undermine the objectivity of the study

how can observer bias be overcome

inter-observer reliability: when independant observers code behaviour in the same way. this lessens the chances of observer bias

what is a structured observation

• follows a scientiffic method

• follows a systematic sampling method to record behaviour: event and time sampling

• will get quantitative data

what is an unstructured observation

• note everything that is observed

• provides rich data

• will get qualitiative data

what is event sampling

involved couting the number of times a particular behaviour occurs in the target group

what is time sampling

involves recording behaviour within a pre-established time frame

what three factors do we have to consider when creating behavioural categories

• mutually exclusive

• precise

• observable and measurable

what are the key features of a correlational study

• measures the relationship between two variables

• the relationship can be positive or negative

• the relationship can be strong or weak

• a correlation can be represented on a scattergram

what is the difference between a positive and a negative correlation

positive: as one variable increases so does the other

negative: as one variable increases the other decreases

what are the strengths and weaknesses of correlational studies

strength:

• a correlation establishes a relationship between two variables: could suggest areas of intrest for further research

weakness:

• does not establish a cause and effect: not under controlled conditions so dosent show causality because extraneous varibales are present. therefore we cannot say if on co-varibale has caused the other (low internal validity)

what are the two self report techniques

• questionnaires

• interviews

what are the features of a questionnaire

• are known as self report techniques: they involve asking a number of people about a specific topic to investigate their views, opinions and attitudes

• researcher tries to select a large and representative sample

• when designing a questionnaire the researcher needs to:

  • use a combination of both open and closed questions

  • allow for a dont know answer where appropriate

  • pilot it first so changes can be made if needed

what are the advantages and disadvantages of open and closed questions

open:

• positive: provides rich detailed data

• negative: difficult to statistically analyse

closed:

• positve: easier to statistically analyse

• negative: provides less rich and detailed data

what are the strengths and weaknesses of questionnaries

+

• an efficiant and quick way of collecting data

• qualitative and quantitative data can be gathered

• easily replicated

• lack of investigator effects

-

• ppts may lie

• only a certain type of person will fill in the survey

• ppts may misinterpret questions

• low response rate

what are the features of an interview

• useful for gathering more detailed information and enabling a more natural and flexible approach to questioning

• a type of self report method

• can be structured/ unstructured or semi-structured

• an interviewer can ask closed and/or open questions

what is a structured interview

the interviewer will mostly ask questions that have been prewritten however the interviewer may sometimes add follow up questions to clarify a response. the questions can be open or closed

what is an unstructured interview

the interviewer will have a few predetermined questions; rather they will have a topic they want to explore. this is more like a conversation. The questions tend to be open. interviewers need training and skill to carry out this interview

what is a semi-structured interview

the interviewer will combine some features from both structured and unstructured interviews to produce qualitative and quantitative data

what is an ethical issue

is a conflict between what the researcher needs in order to conduct useful and meaninful research and the rights of the participant

they are proposed by the british psychological study

what are the 6 ethical issues

• withdraw

• briefing

• protection from harm

• deception

• incentives

• condefentiality

how to resolve the issue of deception

• prior general consent: participants agreeing to be decieved at some point in the research without knowing exactly how or when they will be decieved

• presumptive consent: consent gained from people similar to who you are using in the study. if they say they are willing to take part then consent is presumed

• retrospective consent: participants are givent the choice to be included in the published research or not

how to reslove the issue of protection of participants

• participants should not be exposed to risks greater than, or additional to, those encountered in their normal lives

what is a pilot study

a small scale practice investigation, carried out prior to research

what are confederates and what are they also known as

• sometimes a researcher has to use another person to play a role in their investigation. this person is not a participant; they know what the investigation is about and are in on it.

• they are also known as a stooge, an actor or a pseudo-participant

what is an aim

the overall goal of the research

what is a hypothesis

what the researcher thinks the results will be

what does operationalise mean

hypothesis is written in a testable form and the variables have to be precisely defined and unambiguous

what is an independant variable

• this is the variable that the researcher manipulates or changes.

• the "cause" in the cause and effect

what is a dependant variable

• this is the variable that the researcher measures

• the 'effect' in cause and effect

what is an experimental hypothesis

the prediction of what the researcher thinks will happen to the DV when the IV changes (operationalised)

what is a null hypothesis

states that the IV will have no effect on the DV and any observed differences will be due to chance

what is a one tailed hypothesisnon directional

• directional

• specific prediction

• predicts the direction of the results, difference between two conditions or two groups of participants

• past research

what is a two tailed hypothesis

• non directional

• vauge prediction

• predicts there will be a difference between two conditions or groups of participants without stating the direction

what is an extraneous variable

other variables which must be eliminated or controlled otherwise they may affect the DV and confound the results.

what are the two ways researchers deal with extraneous variables

• eliminate them: take out of study all together

• control them: ensure it occurs equally in each condition

what are the types of extraneous variables

• experimenter variables

• participant variables

• situational variables

• demand characteristics

• investigatior effects

what is an experimenter variable

• these are variables which are to do with the researcher, such as personality, age, gender, social class, etc.

• these can be controlled by using standardised procedures, e.g, using the exact same researcher for each condition

what is a participant variable

• these are variables which are to do with the participants such as, age, gender, social class, etc.

• these can be controlled by randomly allocating particiants to groups so that any differences cancel eachother out

what is a situational variable

• these are variables to do with the situation which might interfere with and affect te behaviour of participants in an experiment such as, time of day, lighting, temperature, instructions, etc.

• these can be controlled by using standardised procedures and standardies instructions to ensure that all participants have exactly the same experience

what are examples of demand characteristics

• guessing the purpose of the researcg and trying to please the researcher by giving the right results

• guessing the purpose of the research and trying to annoy the researcher by giving the wrong results (screw you effect)

• acting unnaturally due to nerves or fear of evaluation

• acting unnaturally due to social desirability bias

how are demand characteristics controlled

• single blind method- involves deception which is unethical and is where the participants are not told which condition they are in.

what are investigatior effects

• they are unconscious cues from an investigatior that encourages participants to behave in a particular way

• e.g, tone of voice, eye contact, body language, etc

how can investigator effects be controlled

• double blind method: neither the researcher nor the participants know what the hypothesis is about or which condition they are in. A research assistant conducts the investigation and collefcts the data

what is reliablility

reliability refers to consistency. if a study is repeated using the same method, design and measurements, and the same results are obtained the results are said to be reliable

what is validity

validity refers to whether a test measures what it claims to be measuring. there are two types:

• internal validity

• external validity

what is internal validity

• this is whether or not we can say for certain that the IV has caused the effect seen in the DV

• too little control (low internal validity) means that there may be a confounding variable

• internal validity can be improved by reducing extraneous variables, and by using standardies procedures

what is external validity

this is the extent to which results can be generalised to:

• ecological: other settings

• population: other people

• temporal: over time

too much control means that the behaviour we are studying might not be like real life

external validity can be improved by setting experiments in more naturalistic stettings

what is a target population

the group of people who the researchers want to apply their results to

what is random sampling

• each member of the population have an equal chance of being selected (lottery method)

• e.g: all names in a hat and pull out as many as you need

what are the strengths and weaknesses of random sampling

+

• in theory is is the best sampling method to be able to generalise results because there is an unbiased selection of participants

-

• it is difficult to achieve a large target population because it would be hard to get all participants details before this can be carried out

• the sample might still be unrepresentative ebcause it does not assure an unbiased selction adn the researcher has not selected certain characteristics for each condition

what is opportunity sampling

• asking whoever happens to be around

• e.g: waiting in a university and asking people who walk past

what are the strengths and weaknesses of opportunity sampling

+

• it is more easy and convenient than random sampling because you dont have to look hard for participants as you take those readily available

-

• it is not likely to be representative because people agree to take part and therefore only certain people with certain characteristics will take part

what is volunteer sampling

• people volunteer to take part in the study

• e.g: adverts could be in the newspaper or on a school notice board

what are the strengths and weaknesses of volunteer sampling

+

• it is more easy and convenient than random sampling because participants come to the researcher themselves

• participants want to participate therefore less likely to sabotage the study

-

• it is not liekly to be representative because only certain people woll apply to adverts

• there could still be demand characteristics

what is systematic sampling

• sample is selected from the target population using the nth method

• e.g: get a register and choose every third person

what are the strengths and weaknesses of systematic sampling

+

• the results have a high chance of being generalisable because there can be no researcher bias therefore the sample should be more representative

-

• the sample still may be unrepresentative because it does not assure an unbiased selection

what is stratified sampling

is a small scale reproduction of a population

what are the strengths and weaknesses of stratified sampling

+

• the results are unbiased because they are highly representatice due to using a range of subgroups for your sample

-

• detailed knowledge about the population is needed however this may not be available because data protection laws might stop you accessing certain information you want

what is quantitative data

• numerical data

• involves measuring something

• objective data

• statistical analysis can be used

• collected in experiment based research methods

what is qualitative data

• non-numerical data

• subjective data

• involves finding out what people think and how they feel

• collected in case studies, unstructured interviews, unstructured observations

what is primary data

original data collected specifically for the research aim and has not been previously published

what is meta analysis

combining the findings of several studies examining similar areas. This allows much larger samples and therefore you can generalise reseults easier than a sole investigation

what are the two main types of summaries of results in decriptive statistics

• measures of central tendency: information about the 'typical' score (averages)

• measures of dispersion: information about how spread out the scores are (variability)

what are the two other types of summaries of results in descriptive statistics

• percentages: shows the rate, number or amount of something within every 100. Data shown as percentages can be plotted on a pie chart

• correlational data: provide data that can be expressed as a correlation coefficent, which shows either a positive negative or no correlation. the stronger the correlation the nearer it is to =1 or

what are the three measures of central tendency

• mean: statistical average

• median: this is the central value

• mode: this is the most frequently occuring score

what are the advantages and disadvantages of taking a mean

advantages:

• uses all the scores and therefote is the most powerful and sensitive measure of central tendency

• the mean can be used with interval data

disadvantages:

• it can be distorted by extreme scores making it unrepresentative. these scores are called outliers or anomalies

• the mean score may not actually be one of the actual scores from the set of data

what are the advantages and disadvantages of taking a median

advatages:

• it is unaffected by extreme values. therefore if a set of data has extreme values, the median would be a more appropriate.

• easier to calculate than the mean

• the median can be used with ordinal data

disadvantages:

• it only takes into account one or two scores therfore not as representative as the mean

what are the advantages and disadvantages of taking a mode

advantages:

• it is unaffected by extreme values. therefore if a set of data has extreme values then the mode would be more appropriate

• easier to calculate than the mean

disadvanages:

• it is not useful in small sets of data or when there are too many modes

• it dosent take into account the other scores

• there can be more then one mode (bimodal)

what are measures of dispersion

provide measures with the variablility of scores they include:

• the range: calculated by subtracting the lowest value from the highest value in a set of data

• standard deviation: a measure of variability of a set of scores from the mean

what are the advatages and disadvantages of using a range

advantages:

• fairly easy and quick to work out

• it takes full account of extreme values

disadvantages:

• it can be distorted by anomalies

• it does not show whether data are clustered or spread evenly around the mean

what are the advatages and disadvantages of using standard deviation

advatages:

• it is a more sensitive dispersion measure than the rrange since all scores are used in its claculation

• it allows for the interpretation of individual scores

disadvantages:

• it is the most complicated to calculate

• it is less meaningful if the data are not normally distributed