AP lang Argument Test

Ad Hominem

Attacking the person making the argument rather than the argument itself

Red Herring

Introducing an irrelevant point to divert attention from the main issue

Faulty Analogy

Comparing two things that are not truly comparable

Straw Man Argument

Misrepresenting an opponent’s argument to make it easier to attack

Either/Or (False Dilemma)

Presenting only two options when more exist

Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc

Assuming that correlation equals causation

Equivocation

Using ambiguous language to mislead or misrepresent the truth: Using “few” “some” …

Hasty Generalization

Drawing a broad conclusion from insufficient evidence

Circular Reasoning

Using the claim as evidence, restating it instead of proving it

Ad Populum

Arguing something is true because many people believe it

Appeal to Unqualified Authority

Using an authority who lacks expertise in the subject

Begging the Question

Assuming the truth of what is being argued rather than proving it

Non Sequitur

A conclusion that does not logically follow from the premises “my father has watched many fights on tv; therefore, he is an authority on the physical hazards that boxers face”

Oversimplification

Reducing a complex issue to an overly simple solution

Classical Model (Parts of an Argument)

Introduction (Exordium) // Narration (Narratio) // Confirmation (Confirmatio) // Refutation (Refutatio) // Conclusion (Peroratio)

Exordium

Introduces the subject and engages the audience

Narratio

Provides background information and context

Confirmatio

Presents evidence supporting the claim

Refutatio

Addresses counterarguments

Peroratio

Summarizes the argument and reinforces the main point

Types of Evidence

First-hand, Second-hand, emotional; logical

First-hand

Personal experience, anecdotes, observations

Second-hand

Research, expert opinions, statistics, historical information

Logical evidence

Reasoning based on facts, data, and logic

Emotional evidence

Appeals to feelings or values

Types of Claims

Claim of Fact, Claim of Value, Claim of Policy, Definition Claim, Cause & Effect Claim

Claim of Fact

States something is true or false

Claim of Value

Argues something is good or bad, right or wrong

Claim of Policy

Proposes a change or solution to a problem

Definition Claim

Argues the meaning of a term or concept

Cause & Effect Claim

Asserts one thing leads to another

What is a Claim?

The main argument or assertion in an argument

Parenthesis

Inserting extra information into a sentence using parentheses, commas, or dashes

Asyndeton

Omitting conjunctions between phrases or clauses for effect

Polysyndeton

Using multiple conjunctions between clauses for emphasis

Rhetorical Appeals

Ethos, Pathos, Logos

Ethos

Appeal to credibility or ethics

Pathos

Appeal to emotions

Logos

Appeal to logic and reasoning

Zeugma

A word (usually a verb) that applies to two different nouns in different senses

Litotes

An understatement using a negative to emphasize a positive (e.g., “not bad” for “good”).

Hyperbole

Deliberate exaggeration for effect

Ambiguity

A statement that has multiple meanings or interpretations

Paradox

A contradictory statement that reveals a truth

Metonymy

Replacing a word with something closely associated with it (e.g., “Street is nervous about the new policy.”).

Metaphor

A direct comparison between two unrelated things

Simile

A comparison using “like” or “as.”

Personification

Giving human characteristics to non-human things

Repetition

Repeating words or phrases for emphasis

Extended Metaphor

A metaphor developed throughout a passage or entire work