AP Psychology Unit 3: Development and Learning

Behavioral Perspective

Examines how observable behaviors are learned & refined through interactions w/ the environment

Associative Learning

Process of learning when individual forms connections between events that occur together

Habituation

Non-associative learning when growing accustomed/exhibit a diminsed response to a repeated/enduring stimulus

Difference between habituation and sensory adaptation

Sensory adaptation is the physiological change of sensory receptors becoming less responsive, habituation is the brain (CNS) learning to filter out certain info

Classical Conditioning

Two stimuli are associated to anticipate events

Unconditioned Stimulus

Stimulus that naturally/automatically triggers a response w/o learning

Unconditioned Response

Natural/automatic response to a stimulus w/o prior conditioning

Conditioned Stimulus

Previously neutral stimulus that evokes a learned response after being repeatedly paired w/ an unconditioned stimulus

Conditioned Response

Learned response when a conditioned stimulus is presented

Acquisition

Initial learning of an association

Extinction

Decrease in conditioned response due to conditioned stimulus being repeatedly presented w/o unconditioned stimulus

Spontaneous Recovery

Reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest→suggests extinction suppressed conditioned response temporarily

Stimulus Discrimination

Ability to differentiate between similar stimuli from conditioned stimuli

Stimulus Generalization

Tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus

Higher-Order Conditioning

Previously conditioned stimulus used to create further associations with new neutral stimuli

Counterconditioning

Changing a learned response to something more preferred by pairing it w/ a different experience

Taste Aversion

Learned association between taste of a food and feeling sick

One-Trial Conditioning

Learning occurring quickly after one pairing of two things

Biological Preparedness

Innate tendency to quickly learn the associations that are relevant to survival

Operant Conditioning

Learning where behavior is strengthened or weakened by consequences (reinforcement/punishment)

The Law of Effect

Behaviors followed by favorable outcomes likely repeated, behaviors followed by unfavorable outcomes less likely

Reinforcement

Any consequence that increases likelihood of behavior occurring again

Primary Reinforcers

Things we naturally like (food, water)

Secondary Reinforcers

Things we learn to like due to connection to primary enforcers (money, grades, trophies)

Reinforcement Discrimination

Ability to distinguish between different stimuli and respond based on presence/absence of reinforcement

Reinforcement Generalization

Tendency to respond similarly to different stimuli associated w/ same reinforcment

Positive Reinforcment

Giving desirable stimulus to encourage behavior

Negative Reinforcement

Removing/reducing an aversive stimulus to encourage behavior

Punishment

Consequences that discourages behavior

Positive Punishment

Giving an aversive stimulus to discourage behavior

Negative Punishment

Removing a desirable stimulus to discourage behavior

Shaping

Gradually reinforcing behaviors closer and closer to the desired behavior

Instinctive Drift

Animals may go back to natural instincts instead of learning new behaviors

Superstitious Behavior

Accidental reinforcement of behaviors→belief behaviors cause the desired outcome when it doesn’t

Reinforcement Schedules

Patterns determining when and how often reinforcement given for a behavior

Continuous Reinforcement

Reinforcing behavior each time it occurs

Partial Reinforcement

Reinforcing behavior only some of the time it occurs→slower extinction

Fixed Interval

Reinforcement after fixed amount of time since last one

Variable Interval

Reinforcement after varying amounts of time have passed since last reinforcement

Fixed Ratio

Reinforcement after fixed number of responses

Variable Ratio

Reinforcement after unpredictable number of responses

Scalloped Pattern

For fixed interval: After reward, little to no response bc no immediate reinforcement, but as time for reward nears, responses peak just before reward

Learned Helplessness

Belief that one cannot control their circumstances, learned through repeated exposure to uncontrollable events→lack of effort to change things

Social Learning Theory

Theory that emphasizes importance of observing/imitating behaviors in learning from others

Vicarious Conditioning

Learning by observing consequences of others’ actions without direct experiences

Insight Learning

Sudden understanding of a situation that leads to a solution

Latent Learning

Learning without obvious reinforcement/motivation, not demonstrated until reason to do so

Cognitive Maps

Mental representations of spatial relationships/layouts allowing for navigation & understanding

Developmental Psychology

Study of how and why people change over the course of their life

Nature & Nurture

How genetics & life experiences interact to shape development

Continuity & Stages

Continuity: Changes that are slow/steady, each step building directly on previous ones

Stage theories: Specific sudden shifts that differentiates phases

Stability & Change

How and why people remain the same in some ways but change in others

Longitudinal Research

Studying the same individuals over time

Cross-Sectional Research

Studying different groups of people of various ages at same point in time

Psychosocial Development

Theory that individuals progress through stages characterized by a specific conflict that contributes to personality

Trust vs Mistrust

To 1 year, sets foundation for future relations

Autonomy vs Doubt

1-3 years old, crucial for personal control and self-esteem

Initiative vs Guilt

3-6 years old, crucial for early decision-making and leadership skills

Industry vs Inferiority

6-12 years old, competence, crucial for confidence in abilities and social comparison

Identity vs Role Confusion

12-18 years old, exploring sense of self

Intimacy vs Isolation

18-40 years old, establishing close emotional connections or not

Generativity vs Stagnation

40-65 years old, nurturing next generation, impact on others/personal fullfillment

Integrity vs Despair

65 years and above, reflecting on life

Prenatal Development

Growth and development within the womb

Teratogens

Harmful substances (drugs/alcohol/infections) that can cause developmental abnormalities or birth defects

Reflexes

Automatic responses newborns are born with aiding in their survival

Rooting Reflex

Newborns turning head towards a touch on the cheek to help locate mother’s breast

Maturation

Biological growth process that leads to orderly changes in behavior

Developmental Milestones

Key skills/behaviors children achieve by specific ages (walking, talking, etc)

Sensitive Period

Critical time in early development when brain is receptive to learning specific skills

Fine Motor Coordination

Control of small muscle movements (writing, buttoning, utensil use)

Gross Motor Coordination

Control of large muscle movements (walking, jumping)

Visual Cliff

Experimental setup to study depth perception in infants (clear glass surface w/ illusion of drop-off to see if infants avoid the “cliff”)

Puberty

Period of physical & hormonal changes during adolescence that lead to the ability to reproduce

Adolescent Growth Spurt

Rapid increase in height and weight driven by hormonal changes marking transition from child to adult

Menopause

End of woan’s menstrual cycles around age 50 characterized by hormonal changes and cessation of fertililty

Ecological Systems Theory

Child’s development influenced by multiple layers of environmental systems

Stages in EST

Microsystem: Immediate surroundings (family friends, school)

Mesosystem: Relations between microsystems (parents interacting with teachers)

Exosystem: Broader community indirectly impacting child (parent’s workplace policies)

Macrosystem: Cultural norms, economic conditions

Chronosystem: Major life transitions

Authoritarian Parenting Style

High expectations, rigid rules to be followed w/o question

Permissive Parenting Style

Warmth/responsiveness, few rules and low expectations

Authoritative Parenting Style

High expectations with warmth/support, encouraging open discussion

Temperament

Innate traits that influence how children respond to their environment (activity level, emotional reactivity)

Imprinting

Rapid/instinctive early learning where certain animals form strong attachments to first moving object seen after birth

Contact Comfort

Sense of security from physical touch

Separation Anxiety

Distress response experience by infants when separated from their primary caregiver

Attachment Styles

Patterns of behavior that describe how children form emotional bonds w/ caregivers→influences later relations

Secure Attachment

Confidence & trust that needs will be met

Avoidant Attachment

Independence & avoid seeking comfort from caregiver from emotionally unavailable or unresponsive caregivers

Anxious Attachment

Overly clingy and anxious about separation from inconsistent caregiving

Disorganized Attachment

Inconsistent/confused behaviors toward a caregiver often from trauma or abuse

Adverse Childhood Experiences

Traumatic events/conditions that occur before 18 and can result in long term impacts on health and well being

Social Clock

Cultural timeline that sets expected ages for key life events

Emerging Adulthood

Transitional stage from late teens to mid-20s

Adolescent Egocentrism

Teen stage with increased self-focus→belief that their experiences are unique and others are always observing them

Imaginary Audience

Belief that others are constantly watching & judging behavior→high self-consciousness

Personal Fable

Belief that one’s experiences are unique/special→sense of invulnerability & underestimation of potential risks

Possible Selves

Various versions of who individuals might become in the future

Social Identity

Individuals’s sense of who they are based on their membership in groups

Identity Diffusion

State where individuals haven’t explored/committed to choices regarding beliefs/goals/values→uncertainty

Identity Foreclosure

Individuals commit to goals/values w/o exploring alternatives (adopting family and societal expectations)