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the basics of DNA
double-strand of sugar-backbone with four bases (A, T, C, G) whose arrangement codes for all proteins in the body
genes are inherited in these sequence with some recombination during meiosis, organized into 23 chromosomes, coding and non-coding regions
locard’s exchange principle (founding principles of DNA)
you are constantly shedding DNA through sloughed cells and every interaction leaves a trace
individualization (founding principles of DNA)
except for identical twins, you have unique DNA that can identify you, and only you
advancement (founding principles of DNA)
replaces ABO Blood Typing or Serology, class evidence at its best
genetic fingerprinting (RFLP)
DNA is extracted from a sample, then digested with enzymes (from bacteria), pieces of DNA run on through an agarose gel to separate by size (and charge) via electrophoresis, visualized on film as a fingerprint with radioactive tags
needs more genetic material than modern techniques
tandem repeats
portions of the human genome that are repeating for a variable number of times
30% of the human genome is comprised of these repeating segments (it’s all “junk DNA” and non-coding)
outdated technology, was replaced by STR and PCR-based methods
polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
DNA structure and complementary base pairing enables copies to be made of any starting material, just add chemicals
makes DNA stable & “immortal” through the use of a thermal cycler (it heats and cools the DNA sample)
steps to PCR
denature: 1 piece of DNA is turned into two pieces, an increase in temp (to 95 degrees) makes them come apart
anneal: a piece of DNA hangs out free and the primers attach to the complementary DNA it’s are trying to copy
elongation/extension: the enzyme sits and makes a new copy of the DNA as the original DNA dictates
short tandem repeats (STRs)
regions of DNA where a specific sequence of nucleotides (2-6 base pairs) are repeated in tandem (also “junk DNA”)
DNA is extracted from biological materials, then needs amplification using PCR techniques to detect between 13/20 loci = Multi-Locus Probe (MLP)
most commonly used method; these markers are stored in CODIS)
mitochondrial DNA (lineage-based markers)
found in mitochondria of cells
only inherited by maternal lines
high mutation rate can be helpful to see relatedness, but also individuality \n between generations
y-chromosome DNA (lineage-based markers)
only found in biological males (or those with a genetic abnormality, SRY region)
highly variable between individuals, but not those blood-related
Y-STRs can be typed
multiplexing
a technique that can simultaneously detect more than one DNA marker in a single analysis
more efficient means of testing markers, all at the same time
weight of STR profiles and other forensic DNA evidence
matches and inclusions fall on a sliding scale: weak associations (mixed DNA samples) to strong (single source)
need to ask: “what is the probability that two individuals selected at random will have identical STR type/profile?”
product rule
the mathematical product of the frequencies for each marker occurring in the population
more markers means a smaller frequency occurring together in that combination
M VAC collection
DNA collection on unusual surfaces, more material is needed to generate a useable genetic profile
39x more DNA than traditional swabbing with a cotton swab (3min collection)
more sensitive technique, hence more discretion should be considered when testing items
steps to M VAC collection
bath item in saline solution
suck up the solution with a vacuum
concentrate material on the membrane
extract DNA
amplify/analyze it
DNA databases
goal: rapid DNA → 90 min turnaround → CODIS
beneficial with repeat offenders
STR profiles are a global format for many databases
genealogy databases
voluntary DNA testing is done to determine relationships, this is the crux of the business/industry
concerns about ethics and consent, impact of future family members
GEDmatch (2010)
a publicly accessible online database providing genetic genealogy tools to explore family trees
a database of millions of people who have used these commercial kits
the government gave permission to police to search GEDmatch
low copy number (LCN) DNA
quantity of DNA that is below the normal level of detection
for a standard STR profile, only 125 picograms (pgs) are necessary, and if each body cell contains 7 pgs of DNA each – only 18-DNA bearing cells needed
touch DNA
the transfer of DNA via skin cells onto the surface of an object
standard operating protocol of forensic DNA collection
properly collect sample containing DNA
extract DNA from sample source
amplify (using PCR)
determine DNA profile
compare sample to know DNA (databases, collected, etc.)
forensic DNA collection: detect
detect biological evidence at the scene
sometimes visual or alternative light source (ALS) needed
forensic DNA collection: photograph
photograph evidence at the scene prior to specimen collection, include in sketches and notes
forensic DNA collection: proper handling
proper handling of bloodstains and fluids
must be dried in an open envelope before being sealed for transport to prevent mold growth which would degrade DNA
forensic DNA collection: avoid
avoid contamination at all costs!
use PPE
separate packaging of evidence
proper storage: best in a cold, dry place
source of DNA
biological fluid providing DNA
the suspect can leave DNA on the victim’s body or clothing, an object, and at a location
the victim’s DNA can be on the suspect’s body or clothing, an object, and at a location
“witness DNA” can be on any of the above
can get DNA without the person’s permission if they discard an item
witness DNA
DNA that’s witnessing the crime, it doesn’t belong to the suspect or the victim, but may be pertinent to the case
DNA swabbing
the most commonly used procedure for DNA collection at a crime scene
special swabs are used that are RNA-free, DNA-free, and have no enzymes that break down genetic material
DNA swabbing methods
depends on the type of fluid and its condition and context
add 1 drop of distilled water to the swab
touch area and roll the swab around, moderate pressure
allow it to dry before storing
lysis buffer is needed for a touch DNA sample
blood stains: one swipe, no smearing
DNA reference samples
genetic materials from crime scenes are the most forensically useful when compared to known DNA samples collected from victims or suspects
collecting DNA reference samples from living bodies
use a buccal swab collection:
collect check cells that are nucleated epithelial cells for DNA extraction
swab → burst/lyse cells to extract DNA → isolate → store
amplify when needed for analysis
SNPs
refers to variations in a single DNA nucleotide that occur at a specific position in the genome
highly informative of individuals and can be used to establish genetic profiles unique to individuals
less discriminatory than STRs, database small, random match potential
forensic DNA phenotyping
“snapshot”: using DNA analysis to produce a computer-generated image of a person or their outward appearance
“closed source”, peer-reviewed, and no one can check their work
highlights the limitations of DNA and the use of last-resort methods
used as a way to generate leads
forensic DNA as a tool
DNA in forensic contexts is often degraded
in order for PCR amplification to occur, DNA must be intact at primer binding sites and at the STR loci
interpreting mixtures of DNA can be complicated (more than 3 gets tricky)
difficult to convey the complexities of biological and statistics to the jury
when used correctly, DNA profiling is a powerful forensic tool that can be used to quickly eliminate a suspect and reduce the chances of a wrongful conviction
ancient biomolecules applied to forensics
the utilization of molecules to understand past lifeways, ancestry and evolution
a borrowed technology/methods from the other sciences with an anthropological twist
stable isotopic analysis (SIA)
measures distinctive “isotopic signatures” because certain abundances record information about material creation
used to produce “isoscapes” then utilizes the “comparative analysis” aspect, but with empirical values
SIA in forensics
used by forensic anthropologists as a tool to predict region of origin and residence patterns of unidentified human remains using bone, teeth, hair & nails
aka “where did they live or recently travel”
basics of isotopes
stable isotope means it has the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons and will cause no change
unstable isotope suffer from radioactive decay
any skeletal/soft tissue or tooth can be sampled for isotopes
isotopes and tissues
you are what you eat
isotopes enter the body through food and drink, then are used to make up your tissues, then researchers sample those tissues
their analyses decipher these unique signatures to reconstruct lifeways and environments
isotope located in soil/sediment → plant absorbs it as it grows → animals consume these plants → we eat those animals
isotopes commonly utilized
carbon-13 (¹³C)
nitrogen-15 (¹⁵N)
oxygen-18 (¹⁸O)
sulfur δ³⁴S
strontium (⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr)
MOST common isotope used in diet reconstruction, geographic identity, and environment reconstruction
oxygen-18 (¹⁸O)
carbon 14 (¹⁴C)
used for radiocarbon dating, exploiting the known half-life to date artifacts and specimens
human mobility
oxygen, sulfur, and strontium isotopes are used to trace human migration
isotopes can tell if someone is local (to where their body was found)
this is established from local animals or the actual geography (soil, water, rock, etc.)
egtved girl
3.400-year-old Danish Bronze Age female find
ancient human mobility at the individual level using hard or soft tissues
mobility: she came from outside modern-day Denmark, and traveled over long distances
diet: terrestrial diet with minimal protein intake
garments made of non-local wool
proved that all tissues are helpful
isotopes within the body
teeth: never change
bones: have a 7-15 year turnover
hair: grows 6 inches per year
fingernails: grow 0.1 inches per month
all can be tested/used to trace the individual’s mobility and origin
the scissor sisters
first use of forensic isotopic analysis to point to possible missing person using partial remains
severed remains of an unknown individual were discovered, no head or fingerprints possible, partial DNA profile obtained
analysis of bone and hair showed it was an individual from the horn of Africa, spent the last 7 months in Ireland
forensic isotope analysis
useful application of molecular testing to gain information about geographic information about unidentified victims
useful when fingerprints are not available or DNA does not produce a profile/lead
not as specific as DNA (for victim ID), but traces your past from birth to death
used to ID victims NOT suspects
bloodstain pattern analysis (BPA)
a forensic technique used to investigate violent crimes using deductive reasoning, experimentation, and reconstruction
when properly documented, bloodstain patterns found at the crime scene/a particular person’s clothing can make numerous determinations
BPA is an application of?
physics
ballistics (projectiles in motion)
trigonometry
biochemistry of blood (fluid dynamics)
bloodstain pattern/evidence determinations
origin/direction of the bloodstains and position of perpetrator
movement of those involved, especially bleeding individual
nature of the force used to cause the bloodshed and minimum number of blows
approximate location of individual delivering blows
if there is evidence of a struggle or if the assault is one-sided
sequencing of multiple bloodshed events
direction of travel and impact angles
confirm or refute statements made by those involved
crime scene reconstruction
the method used to support a likely sequence of events at a crime scene by the observation and evaluation of physical evidence and statements made by individuals involved in the incident
reconstruction is still an interpretation of events and is inherently subjective!
physical evidence and crime scene reconstruction
blood deposited on people, objects, and structures can provide insights into what happened, especially its location, distribution, & appearance
needs to be properly handled, preserved, and documented
types of bloodstains
passive stains (gravity is the primary force; drops, flows, pools)
spatter (force in addition to gravity; projections, impacts, gushes, spurts, cast-off, expiratory, back spatter)
transfer or altered stains (physically (mechanical) or physiologically (diluted) contact with existing stains; wipes, swipes, transfer patterns)
passive stains
low-velocity force, only gravity working
drops or dripping
single, multiple, trail
flow patterns
the pattern depends on the amount of blood and surface texture
large volume
saturation (porous)
pool (non-porous)
passive stains: repetitive dripping
can create smaller satellite spatters that look a little like mist from a high-velocity impact just from the constant breaking of the surface tension of the pool the drops are falling into
caused by blood falling into blood
spatter stains: impact mechanism
gunshots, beatings, stabbings, power tools
spatter stains: projection mechanism
indicates more than one blow (because first one at least was “clean”)
may be used to estimate the number of blows
spatter stains: secondary mechanism
satellite spatter (small droplets of blood that are distributed around a drop/pool of blood when the blood impacts the target surface)
spatter stains: GSWs
back spatter (blowback or entrance) or forward spatter (same direction as bullet or exit)
medium velocity spatter
associated with BFT
high velocity spatter
associated with GST
cast-off stains
flings of blood in an arc pattern created by a blood-soaked object; minimum number of blows delivered to victim can be determined from pattern
blood is projected or thrown from a bloody object in motion onto a surface
projected spatter
bloodstain pattern resulting from the ejection of blood under hydraulic pressure, typically from a breach in the circulatory system
expiration spatter
bloodstain pattern resulting from blood forced by airflow out of the nose, mouth, or wound
coughed up or expelled from the lungs of the victim
arterial spatter
blood is spurted from a cut artery in large quantities as the heart beats
transfer or altered stains
clotted (timing)
diluted (clean-up)
insects (timing)
voids (sequencing)
transfer/contact (sequence)
smeared/wiped (sequence, clean-up)
previous stain, something came in contact • Swipe (sequence, movement)
swipe (sequence, movement)
transfer pattern with movement
bloodstain principles
composition of blood
fluid dynamics of blood
distance fallen
surface texture
angle of impact
directionality
area of convergence
area of origin
what is blood? (composition of blood)
average adult holds 5-6 liters in the body
circulates oxygen & others items
two main components:
plasma (55%)
formed elements (45%)
value of blood (physical evidence) for CSIs
DNA: from nucleated white blood cells
blood type: ABO typing, class evidence (e.g. Secretor, Rh, M/N, Bombay, Duffy...)
enzymes: identifying serological profile
stains: CS reconstruction
detection/identification of blood
search: techniques with chemical processes to find blood not visible to naked eye
ie: luminol: reacts with iron (heme), visualize a blue glow
presumptive tests: quick and simple test to determine if a stain is likely blood
ie: Kastle-Meyer, Hemastix, Luminol
confirmation tests: specific and reliable
ie: microscopic, hemoglobin, protein tests for humans
*identification is based on experience, but you must test and confirm
fluid dynamics of blood
cohesion: surface tension of the liquid blood keeps blood droplets together and causes the drops to be spherically shaped
viscosity is 6 times that of water
the average size of drop: 0.05 ml, however, there are factors that can influence the size and shape of bloodstains:
distance fallen
surface texture
angle of impact
distance fallen
the diameter of the bloodstain increases as the falling distance increases until the falling distance reaches about 7 feet; the size of the bloodstain remains the same even at higher distances
surface texture
type of surface blood falls on is an important variable
a smooth surface retains a round drop
a rough surface breaks the surface tension and breaks the drop apart into separate spatters and reduces how much the CSI team can deduce from it
creation of parent and secondary stains
angle of impact
whether blood drops straight down or at an angle
tail of the blood drop stain points to the direction of travel
directionality
the direction of the blood droplets as they impact a surface; important factor in determining the origin and trajectory of blood spatter
it’s where are the drops coming from
again: the tails point in the direction of motion
area of convergence
an imaginary line is drawn through the long axis of the stain of selected spatters indicating the direction of travel
where the lines converge is the area of convergence
usually at least 7-8 stains are picked to determine this
this is used for a 2-dimensional perspective
can be retraced to determine the location of the spatter-producing event
area of origin
adding a height dimension to the area of convergence
must determine angle of impact
often strings are used for a 3D perspective
documentation of bloodstain patterns
it is critical to document the appearance and location of each bloodstain for the investigation
recording not just the bloodstain’s relation to other objects/features but more critically, its physical dimensions since measurements are necessary for reconstruction
must use scales
2 types:
grid method
perimeter rule method
grid method
grid the entire pattern using strings and stakes, overall, medium-, and close-range photos taken with and without grid
perimeter rule method
arrange rulers around the pattern (perimeter) to be included in photos, then use smaller scales for close-ups
issues with bloodstain patterns
“CSI effect” is in play here, which is due to the scientific aura that these techniques lend to utilizing BPA
specialists are out there, but no standard for how much training or experience qualifies as such
interpretation of bloodstain analysis is NOT STANDARD
error rates associated with BPA are high; is still SUBJECTIVE
traceology
the scientific examination of trace evidence, which refers to small, often microscopic, physical evidence left at a crime scene that can be linked to a person, place, or object
scientific interpretation of remnants of earlier activities, especially “contact between two sources”
ie: hair, fibers, glass fragments, soil, paint chips, gunshot residue or other explosives, polymers, tape, other particles
beginnings of traceology
credited to Edmond Locard: “whenever two objects come into contact that is always a transfer of material between them”
Further research developed the subfield to include:
methodology refinement: detection, collection, isolation
developing techniques: identify and compare unknown substances
implementation of methods: prevent cross-contamination at crime scene or lab
interpretation of results for active investigations or presentations in court
trace evidence analysis
collection and preservation
identify the trace evidence (what is it?)
must know what it is before comparison can be completed
many methods, tests to be performed; may be a tedious part of the process
comparison
database contain information on substances for comparison
results: to be presented in the courtroom
expert testimony delivered during a trial to judge & jury
traceologists
should be experts in chemistry ,microscopic, biology, geology, and physics as well as how to handle such minute evidence
analytical techniques (of trace evidence analysis)
traceologists use a variety of techniques, such as microscopy, spectroscopy, chromatography, and other analytical methods, to examine and identify trace evidence
the idea is to reconstruct what took place, according to the physical evidence that can be detected
contamination
any polluting substance that degrades the physical evidence
locard’s exchange principle is still in play here, scientifically not always visibly
it’s likely unavoidable due to locard’s exchange principle
when you enter a space, you will leave a trace AND you will take a trace of the space with you as well
once a crime scene is “created,” it starts to degrade
trace evidence is likely to be fragile, degradation is critical
contamination of a crime scene
it’s critical to know what is ”diluting” the original evidence
contamination is prevented when the scene is secured and technicians have control over the flow of personnel there
most contamination comes from first responders, then it would be investigative personnel
these individuals need to be tracked down, recorded in notes, and then sampled for “elimination
their shoeprints, fibers, DNA, fingerprints, etc.
limitations to traceology
the presence of trace evidence does not necessarily prove guilt or innocence, and interpretation of results may be subject to human error or bias. databases are the crux of the power of these analyses so it is paramount they are large, comprehensive, and accurate
advancements in traceology
these have greatly improved the analysis of trace evidence, such as the use of DNA profiling and advanced analytical techniques that are becoming more and more sensitive to detect.
importance of traceology
trace evidence can provide critical information in criminal investigations, helping to link suspects to a crime scene or victim. it can also help to exonerate innocent individuals who may have been wrongfully accused.
sheppard murder
marilyn sheppard, the wife of a handsome surgeon, was killed by more than 15 blows to her head.
her husband sam sheppard was convicted of murder in a highly publicized trial and was sentenced to life in prison,
he served 10 years - until the U.S. Supreme Court overturned his conviction. in a second trial, sheppard was acquitted, but suspicions about his guilt remained
sheppard murder significance
the first case that used blood pattern analysis to find the perpetrator and prove her husband’s innocence. it’s also the first case where the audience got involved and brought in mass hysteria
a large stain was left by the killer, who must have been wounded during the struggle. sam sheppard was not injured at all.
forensics and fire
complex or difficult scenes involving fire that are investigated for crime
forensic scientists are responsible for the determination of the cause of the fire considering various factors and extensive on-site investigation
determination must be made by an investigator whose training and knowledge is developed by practical experiences of fire investigation
fire
a rapid, persistent chemical reaction that releases heat and light, especially the exothermic combination of a combustible substance with oxygen (i.e. OXIDATION)
fire tetrahedron
fuel, heat, oxygen, chain reaction
fuel
will burn and support combustion
liquid (gasoline), solid (wood), and vapor (propane)
fuels will only burn in their vapor form
liquids: flashpoint and fire point
oxidizer
oxidizing agent (O2) is generally present
heat source
energy due molecular activity, an uninhibited chemical chain reaction