AP World (Post Classical Period)

Allah

The God figure in the Islamic religion- all powerful, knowing, seen as one true God. Divine power derived from Judaism and Christianity.

Muhammad

Born into the Bedouin tribe system and was orphaned, grew up as an orphan. Had a spiritual awakening where Allah revealed his word to him, making him a prophet in the Abrahamic religions. Told followers Allah was the only true God and all others were bad.

Impact of Muhammad

Challenged the hierarchy and divine right of the Bedouin rulers- him and his followers had to flee from Mecca

Bedouins

pastoral nomads, tribal political structure and had frequent warfare. societies were held together more by shared beliefs such as polytheistic animism more than a common leader.

Five Pillars of Islam

Shahada (Confession of faith), Salat (Prayer, five times daily facing the Kaaba), Zakat (Charity), Sawm (Fasting), and Hajj (Pilgrimage to Mecca). These are meant to be the foundational ways a Muslim should practice Islam and represent what (ideally) every Muslim should prioritize in their moral judgment and practice of Islam.

Qur’an

Allah’s only representation on Earth, the literal word of him. Primary text of Islamic faith, including legal and moral codes

Hadiths

A collection of stories about Muhammad and his teachings- followers recounts of his life (second most important moral text)

Ali

cousin and son in law of Muhammad. Many Shiites believed that he should be the successor of him, but the caliph was instead given to Abu Bakr.

Alis followers became none as:

Shi’a minority of Islam

Sunni

No designated successor of Muhammad, the people should choose their own

Abu Bakr

Muhammad's father-in-law and was chosen as the first caliph after Muhammad’s death. The Sunni Muslims, who made up 80-90% of the population, wanted to select the next caliph, and it did not need to be blood-related to Muhammad.

questions over who should be the next caliph after Muhammad caused..

internal conflict inside the caliphate because some people did not believe that Abu Bakr should be the caliph. This did not last long because he died of natural causes shortly after

Umayyad

the first Islamic dynasty which was centered in Damascus but the religious center was still Mecca. It considered Muslim Arabs as first class citizens and the second class the Mawali, non Arab Muslims. Lower than that were the dhimmi, “People of the Book”, which are other religions like Christianity and Judaism.

Women in the Umayyad Caliphate

Rules were not as strict as women could work publically and veiling was not required. Women were also subordinate to men.

Abbasid Caliphate

centered in Baghdad. They got the Shia and Mawali to ally with them to make everyone treated as equals but conversion was encouraged. Caliphs began to LOVE the luxury and new bureaucratic roles

Women in the Abbasid Caliphate

Women's positions declined where veils were required and early marriages. Higher social status=greater restrictions. Motherhood was the sole focus.

Sunni and Shi’a

two different types of Islam, and the main difference is who should have been the leader after Muhammad died. The Sunni believe that the people should be able to pick the next caliph while the Shia believe that it should be from Muhammad’s bloodline so his cousin Ali should be the next caliph. 

Sufis

Different APPROACH to the Islam religion- less on the books and the texts but focus more on the spiritual element of getting closer and connecting with Allah. You see a more personal side of Allah and it focuses on spiritual and ritual elements. 

Why the Abbasid Caliphate declined:

• luxury and disinterest in governing

• infighting (brother against brother)

• infrastructure in decline

• fractured into different regions

Who took power after the decline of the Abbasid Caliphate?

The Seljuk Turks, who pushed the Buyids out. They had powerful fighting skills and gained power through military and political control

Form of Islam for Seljuk Turks

Sunni

Mawali

The people who were outside of Arab, they are non-Arab Muslims. In the Umayyad Caliphate, Muslim Arabs were seen as first class citizens, where ____ were considered second class and oftentimes didn't share the wealth that was acquired from conquered territories, or had to pay certain and higher taxes that Arab Muslims didn't have to pay. In the Abbasid Caliphate, ____ people were allies, as they were seeking higher social status. They were considered equals here, where conversion was highly encouraged.

Caliphate

A state that is ruled by someone called a caliph. Has political authority over Muslim communities,where they live under centralized authority.

Mecca

A Bedouin trading town that was the place of cultural exchange- Muslims would often go here with pilgrimage for Allah. Was controlled by the Umayyads, who were apart of Muhammad's tribe. When Islam started to form, the political leaders of Mecca were threatened, and followers of Muhammad fled to Medina. Followers moved back and began to convert those who

Ka’ba

In Mecca, a shrine that housed the black stone, which is a sacred stone to the Bedouins and later the Islams. Housed idols that represented the Gods.

Medina

The town associated with Muhammad’s mother and family. Also a Bedouin trading town, Muhammad fled here during the origins of Islam, where him and his followers gradually built the first Muslim community (ummah).

Muhammads followers fleeing from Mecca is called”

The Hijra

Essential beliefs of Islam

Afterlife and eternal damnation for unjust. Allah was hard to describe, not concrete. Divine unity and EQUALITY OF ALL BELIEVERS- wealth is shared.

Imams

Leaders of prayer in Islamic faith but they had no religious authority

Ulama

became a unifying factor of Islamic, were the scholars and universities, since there was no central church structure.

Sharia Law

Islamic law code that sets standards for political, religious, and personal standards. They outline rules of conduct for crime, politics, diet, fasting, economics, and more. They are based on the religious texts of the Quran and Hadiths and are believed to be God's law. T

Umma

he worldwide community of Muslims, bound together by their shared faith and religious practices. Highlighting a collective identity grounded in Islam, the umma transcends social status and ethnicity. This reflects both a spiritual and social bond among Muslims, symbolizing unity, mutual support, and the equality of all believers within the broader Islamic community.

Harem

living quarters within an estate or palace owned by men that held power that were reserved for wives, concubines, and female servants. Most commonly found in Muslim culture

Caliph

political and religious ruler of the umma, seen as the successor to Muhammad. was responsible for leading the community of Muslims, upholding Islamic laws and beliefs, and making political decisions. While the Shi'ite believed that this person should descend from the bloodline of Muhammad, the Sunni believed that they should be selected by the people.

Moors/Berbers

the Muslim subpopulation of Spain (Al-Andalus) and North Africa, respectively. Muslims who have a mix of Arab, Spanish, or Berber decent.

Dhimmi

refers to a person who non-muslims who lived in an islamic state. Dhimmi to "people of the book," refering to people who believe in the old testament of the Bible, a holy text of Christianity, Judaism, and Islam.

Ridda Wars

 series of military campaigns launched by the Caliph Abu Bakr against rebel Arabian tribes during 632 and 633, just after the death of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad.^[1] The rebels' position was that they had submitted to Muhammad as the prophet of Allah, but owed nothing to Abu Bakr. These wars secured the caliphate's control over Arabia and restored its nascent prestige.

Purpose of Ridda Wars

• Military conquest, yes, but not for purposes of conversion.

  • Instead, for plunder.  All spoils would go to the Arab Muslims of the empire.  Even those who did convert could not share in the spoils (at least during this early period) Conquest for land and money

Ulama

Muslim religious scholars and religious authorities. They serve as teachers, judges, juries, preachers, etc. They helped to spread Islam throughout the Middle East and further through their teaching. They set the Sharia Law

Caliph after Abu Bakr dies:

Uthman- first from the Umayyad Caliphate

What happened when Uthman was murdered?

those opposed to the Umayyads (including many in Medina), claim Ali as caliph.

The Umayyads oppose Ali and name their own caliph (Yazid Ibn Muawiya)

Facts about the Umayyad Caliphate

Centered in Damascus, a political center.

Leaders in the Umayyad Caliphate

Became soft and interested in luxury, wanted to share in the spoils that warfare can bring

Facts of the Abbasid Caliphate

Centered in Baghdad, supported in takeover by the Mawali and Shi’a allies

Leaders in the Abbasid Caliphate

learned to love luxury, disinterested in governing. New bureaucratic roles, Chief administrator and Royal executioner (symbol of state power)

Fall of Abbasid

Long, drawn out political decline, fractured and divided into different regions

Mamluks

a group of enslaved turkic people that were brought into egypt by the egyptian sultan to serve as an army. When the sultan died and a new weaker sultan came in, they seized power of egypt and formed another turkic islamic state (after the Seljuk Empire). They were fierce and skilled warriors who were in power during the mongol takeover of the abassid caliphate and helped to defend against the mongols. 

Lateen Sails

a major technological developement in mediteranean and indian ocean sea routes which allowed for more sea based trade. Since it was shaped triangularly, it was much more efficient for more amounts of long distance trade, and it spread to other countries as maritime trade became more widespread. It was also accompanied by a better understanding of monsoon winds which helped to form the well functioning sea roads. 

Seljuk conquering

were able to conquer in the name of Islam and keep the spoils of their conquests. Shortly thereafter the real power of the Abbasid caliphs began to wane; eventually they became religious figureheads while the warrior slaves ruled. 

Mongol Invasion

destroy the Caliphate, but not Islamic culture, Short lived and had little impact on the culture of conquered peoples (no new language, religion, or civilizations)- Brought civilizations of Europe, China, and Islamic world into more direct contact 

Islamic Culture

Persian influence for arts and literature, and poetry and mosques, travel literature (Ibn Battuta)

Chinggis Khan (backstory)

When his father (small chief) was murdered, his family became outcasts and dropped in the social hierarchy. Family adopted gathering. Gathered a small following with his friends, and gained a higher level of support when there was an increase in violence and betrayals. Made an empire while Mongol World War was happening

How the Mongols rose in power

Even though outnumbered by China, they had a very organized and disciplined miltary. Used Chinese technology and techniques at warfare.

Trade with the Mongols

Supported commerce, important in China where merchants had traditionally had low status- in china and persia, Ortughs (state approved associations of merchants) were formed and merchants also received tax breaks 

Religion with the Mongols

• adopted buddhism, christanity, muslim, and daoism (as long as they didnt become the focus of political opposition)

  • Muslims seeked to convert Mongol troops, Christians had more freedom

China and the Mongols

Longest and most difficult Mongol invasion. Resulted in a unification of the divided state, rule was still harsh and resented.

Mongols and Chinese Culture

DID NOT accept their culture, and refused their examination system. Prohibited intermarriage and scholars learning Mongol script.

Why were Mongols forced out of China

due to rising prices, factionalism, epidemics and peasant rebellion. Replaced by Ming Dynasty.

Ming Dynasty

•  reestablished the EXAMINATION SYSTEM, created a highly centralized gov (power was with the emperor, people loyal to him called eunuchs 

• Economy rebounded, international and domestic trade improved, population grew

Persia and the Mongols

Persia was heavily shaped by Islamic ideals. Takeover was much more abrupt and extended. First invasion by Chinggis, than the next was 30 years later. Takeover was shocking, many casualties

Persian culture under the Mongols

• Peasants were pushed off land due to taxes- hurt agriculture 

• Persian silk profited due to contact with Mongol ruled China 

• Mongol elites learned some Persia

Religion with the Mongols in Persia

MONGOLS BECAME MUSLIMS following the lead of Ghazan who converted (THIS WIDESPREAD COVERSION DID NOT HAPPEN IN CHINA)

Mongols in Persia when the empire collapsed:

Were not forced out, but rather assimilated into their culture

Safavid Empire

forcibly imposed a Shia version of Islam as the official religion of the state. Shia gained popularity and defined the identity of Persia 

Russia and the Mongols

Mongol military gor rid of the political unity Rus had started to enjoy and the independent princes couldn’t unite . Cities fell to Mongol. Mongol forces were armed with catapults that were adopted from Chinese and Muslims.

Conquest was similar to Persia

Difference in Mongol conquering in Russia

Mongols had conquered Russia, BUT DID NOT OCCUPY IT LIKE THEY DID IN CHINA AND PERSIA

Russian culture under Mongol Rule

• believed that Russia had little to offer- economy was not sophisticated or productive (not worth the money to occupy)

• Russian princes were required to send tribute to the Mongol capital, Sarai. Taxes, especially on peasantry, also had a burden. Sent Russians into slavery. 

Religion in Russia during Mongol takeover

Russian Orthodox Church thrived under the Mongols, received exemption from taxes.

House of Wisdom in Baghdad

served as a library, research center, and preserved knowledge of different regions

Arabic knowledge spreads to India

Arabic numerals, music, medicine, geography

Spread of technology through Trans Regional exchange

Dhows, Caravans, camel saddles, caravanserai, printing, paper, gunpowder

Mansa Musa

Mansa Musa ruled the Mali Empire from 1312 to 1337, marking its golden age. He expanded Mali’s territory, incorporating key trade centers such as Timbuktu and Gao and solidifying the empire’s control over trans-Saharan trade routes. Fostered the spread of Islamic to West Africa

Pre-Islamic Africa characteristics

North Africa: traditional religious beliefs, some Christianity and limited judaism

Sub-Saharan: Stateless societies, divine kingships, councils of elders, Polytheistic animism, ancestor worship, divination

Sudanese Empires

Ghana, Mali, Songhay-made money through taxation and trade

Why Islam was appealing to rulers and people of Africa

Rulers: : beneficial for trade with other Muslim states; source of legitimacy (religion); prestige/connection with Med. world; brought literacy (needed to build wealth through trade)

People:community, equality

Timbuktu (Africa)

city of commercial exchange, learning

Hausa Kingdoms

Converted to Islam due to trade connection with Sudanese Empires

• Slaves, gold, salt, textiles, kola nuts

Bantu Migration

the mass, gradual, movement of Bantu-speaking peoples from West Africa, near modern-day Nigeria, into East and sub-Saharan Africa. Occurred throughout the post-classical period.

Swahili City States

City state political structure, Convert to Islam for trading purposes & due to intermarriage with Islamic merchants, Lots of strong, centrally controlled cities & surrounding areas – independent from one another, had individual rulers

Syncretism

 Islam practiced differently in Swahili cities than elsewhere - appeasing spirits, ancestor worship, women had greater rights in places

Great Zimbabwe

a powerful medieval state in the Southern African interior that emerged from the growing gold trade to the East African coast. It flourished between 1250 and 1350 C.E. and was known for its large circular wall and tower.  It was part of a wealthy African trading empire that controlled much of the East African coast. DID NOT CONVERT TO ISLAM

Islam in India (origins)

Early raids (8th century) by Arab Muslims

Delhi Sultanate

• Raids by Turkish Muslims begin 962

• By 1206, Delhi Sultanate is established

• Hindus and Buddhists now dhimmi

Resistance to Islam in India

Rajput kingdoms (warriors resisted successfully)

Vijayanagara-hindu followed caste system, founded to resist Islam.

Bhakti Movement

traditionally been considered an influential social reformation, sought to bring religious reforms to all strata of society by adopting the method of devotion to achieve salvation,  individual-focused alternative path to spirituality regardless of one's birth or gender (similar to Islam in India)

Sufism

Most prominent in India, emphasizes a personal, spiritual connection with the Divine, achieved through devotion, meditation, and ethical living

Islam in Southeast Asia (prior)

Spread of Mahayana buddhism. Islam conversion happened MUCH later. Pushed out buddhism

Islam in Europe

• Approx. 711-1492 CE

• Moors/Berbers

  Cordoba Caliphate 929-1031

  • Center of Learning

    • Trigonometry, surgery, philosophy, pharmacology

  • Cultural Exchanges

    • Pointed arches, ribbed vaulting

    • Sugar, citrus, chess

Roman Catholic Church

converted Germanic tribes and Western Europeans to Catholicism. During crusades Pope Urban II called for Christians to recapture Holy Lands (city of Jerusalem), for the most part the Crusades were a loss for the Roman Catholic Church and Europeans as a whole, besides trade opportunities expanding.

Feudalism

a political and social hierarchical system, especially between Lords and Vassals that took place in Europe and provided structure where larger states were not present (especially after Rome fell). In this system, the king would give land and peasants to the Lords who would give loyalty and military aid in return. These lords then gave some land, shelter, protection and food to the knights who would fight for them in return. 

Manorialism

the economic side of Feudalism that emerged in Europe when there were no large States. It was the economic and political relationship between landlords and laborers/peasants. The landlords or knights would provide food, protection and shelter while the peasants farmed the land and paid rent. These peasants may also be referred to as Serfs.

Vassals

In the system of feudalism when talking about a certain rank in the hierarchy the rank directly below it is its vassal (Ie: Nobles were vassals of kings, knights were vassals of nobles, and peasants were vassals of knights). Usually, there is a mutual agreement between the vassal and its higher party such as an exchange of services (Ie: military service for food and land).

Christianity-basic beliefs and background

• For Christians, Jesus Christ is the “messiah” Jews have been waiting for, and thus is God.

• He alone has the power to save people, as sinners, from eternal damnation

• Begins in the Holy Land (among Jews) and spreads into the Roman Empire

• Mystery of the Trinity - three individual gods who are nevertheless one, single God

  • God the father, God the Son & God the Holy Spirit

• The Bible - main literary work of Christianity

The Crusades (Europe)

“Holy Wars” to take back the Holy Land (mostly), but also al-Andalus, other parts of Europe

Causes of the Crusades

• Pope Urban II - called for Christians to recapture Holy Lands

• Plea from the Byzantine emperor to help against Turks

• Gain for the participants

• Genuine religious devotion

• Arab/Muslim expansion

Results of the Crusades

• A loss (mostly) for Europeans/Christians

• Increase in Muslim-Christian tensions

• New interest in trade

• New access to lost knowledge

Black Death

Originated in China, spread across the trade routes. Many casualties, religion brought people together. Long term effects included, : social changes in Europe-labor shortages=conflict between workers who wanted higher wages and better conditions. Peasant revolts undermined the practice of serfdom. Created more employment opportunities for women

Mita

the forced labor of the conquered people in the Inca Empire which was enacted periodically, rather than the collection of goods as tribute as seen in the Aztec Empire. It consisted of civil and military work, such as working on state farms, known as "sun farms," herding domesticated animals, mining, military service, and public construction

Aztec Empire

Growing empire in mesoamerica but did not have active relationships with other empires. Aztec merchants known as pochteca took on large scale trading expeditions within the empire and sometimes outside the empire. Rapid population growth in the empire allowed for the creation of markets and more goods. In the empire many followed a complex polytheistic religion. 

Tang Dynasty China

controlled China from 618 CE to 907 CE, with its capital at Chang'an. Modeling the institutions placed by its predecessor, the Sui dynasty, the empire was highly bureaucratic, with the civil service system in place for people to attain positions in government. Trade and interaction with other societies prospered during this time, as the Silk Road had continuous protection from states.