AP Psych final

memory

the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information

recall

A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

recognition

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

relearning

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time

Encoding

the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning.

storage

the process of retaining encoded information over time

Retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

parallel processing

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions.

sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

explicit memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

implicit memory

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection

space

while reading a textbook, you automatically encode the place of a picture on a page

Frequency

you effortlessly keep track of how many times things happen.

time

you unintentionally note the sequence of events in your day

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

Chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information

shallow processing

encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words

deep processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention

measures of retention

recall, recognition, relearning

Hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.

memory consolidation

the neural storage of a long-term memory

Cerebellum

part of the brain that contains conditioned reflexes like blinking

Amygdala

two lima bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion.

flashbulb memory

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

long-term potentiation

an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.

Priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory

encoding specificity principle

the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it

mood-congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last (a recency effect) and first items (a primacy effect) in a list

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories

retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one's past

proactive interference

the forward-acting disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

retroactive interference

the backward-acting disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

Repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

reconsolidation

a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again

misinformation effect

when misleading information has corrupted one's memory of an event

source amnesia

attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined

deja vu

that eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.

Theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events

organize

make arrangements or preparations for an event or activity

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

prediction

say or estimate something will happen in the future or will be a consequence of something

operational definition

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study

sleep deprivation

the situation or condition of suffering from a lack of sleep.

replicate

repeating an experiment using different samples to determine the research's reliability

descriptive methods

scientific tools used by researchers and psychologists for gathering information and describing the specifics of behaviors, patterns, and other phenomena

correlational method

looking for relationships between variables

experimental method

involves the manipulation of variables to establish cause and effect relationships

case study

a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

naturalistic observation

a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

survey

a descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group

sampling bias

situations where the sample does not reflect the characteristics of the target population

representative sample

A selected segment that very closely parallels the larger population being studied on relevant characteristics.

Population

all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn

random sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

Correlation

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.

correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)

Scatterplot

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables

illusory correlation

perception of a relationship where none exists

regression toward the mean

the tendency for extreme or unusual scores to fall back (regress) toward their average.

decline effect

someone who did good by chance on a test the first time, are likely to do worse on the retake

experiment

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process

experimental group

In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

control group

In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

double-blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.

placebo effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.

independent variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

confounding variable

in an experiment, a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect

dependent variable

in an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated

operational definition

a statement of the procedures used to define research variables

theoretical principles

a fact based on an idea that describes a phenomenon of human behavior

informed consent

giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

Debriefing

the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

Mode

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

mean

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores

Median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it

range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

normal curve

the symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes.

statistical significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

Phrenology

studying bumps on the skull

Biological Perspective

concerned with the links between biology and behavior

Neuron

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

Dendrites

a neuron's bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body

Axon

the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands

myelin sheath

a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next

multiple sclerosis

communication to muscles slows, with eventual loss of muscle control

glial cells

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they might also play a role in learning, thinking, and memory.

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

Depolarization

the loss of the inside/outside charge difference