Trait (Dispositional) Theory and Individual Differences

traits defined

dynamic organization, inside the person, of psychological systems that create a person’s characteristic patterns of behaviors, thoughts, and feelings

an individual’s characteristic pattern of thoughts, emotions, and behaviors, together with the psychological mechanisms— hidden or not— behind those patterns

defining characteristics of an individual’s personality

traits

features used to describe a person’s behavior (e.g., impulsive, conscientious, introverted)

individual differences in personality are due to the ___ a person possesses

trait theorues

personalities are comprised of stable and broad dispositions

aim to identify and quantify (measure) probability differences

lexical

main theorists: Allport, Cattell, Eysenk, McCosta, McCrae

Gordon W. Allport

1897-1967

born in Indiana, grew up near Cleveland

Meeting Freud as a child sparked his interest in studying personality, but his approach was a definitive departure from Freud’s

Student (studied social ethics) and later faculty member at Harvard

Believed in the power of psychology research to provide knowledge to improve behavior and therefore, society (did a great deal of research on group conflict and prejudice at Harvard)

people are proactive and forward moving; they are driven by conscious forces, not unconscious, instinctive drives

Allport and Personality

psychology of the individual

personality is dynamic and evolves throughout the lifespan

common traits

dispositional (personal) traits

common traits

categorization of personality in societal terms

shared characteristics of individuals within a particular culture

intensity of the trait varies within a culture

allows us to compare people within a culture

traits possessed to some degree by all people and used to compare the personality of different individuals or groups of individuals

dispositional (personal) traits

traits unique to the individual that combine in a specific manner to produce a personal style of responding to a variety of stimuli

• cardinal traits

• central traits

• secondary traits

Cardinal traits

most significant / dominant features that are expressed in most aspects of one’s life behavior (e.g., “power”, “justice”)

influential and pervasive features of the individual’s personality

central dispositional traits

primary focus of Allport

basic foundations of personality (how you describe yourself or how others might describe you)

5-10 in each person

less pervasive and dominant than Cardinal traits

secondary dispositional traits

attitudes or preferences

usually situation-specific

are personal dispositions having a much more limited influence on the individual’s behavior

Allport’s Human Values

“Value Orientations”

expression of uniqueness through personal beliefs

define personality / motivate behavior

guide an individual’s life choices and highlight what they consider to be most important

six human values

humans are a unique mix of human values, typically with a primary orientation toward one or two

measured in the Study of Values Scale

theoretical human value

desire to discover truth and systematize one’s thinking (scientific / philosophical thinking)

• e.g., psychologist researching the basis of Alzheimer’s Disease

economic human value

concern for utility and practicality

• e.g., CEO of a Fortune 500 company

aesthetic human value

appreciation of artistic beauty, harmony and form for its own sake

• e.g., artist or poet

social human value

basic concern for the well-being of other people

• e.g., social worker in foster care system; teacher; other helping professions

political human values

interest in power related to any field, not just to politics

• e.g., domineering spouse; senator driven to lead; unscrupulous career-minded individual

religious human value

interest in unifying the self with a higher sense of reality / higher power

• e.g., yoga teacher with deep spiritual interests; a priest; people who attend retreats; people who take drugs to achieve expanded self-awareness

study of values scale

personality inventory

consists of 45 forced-choice items, in which a response indicating each value is paired an equal number of times with each of the remaining values

Raymond B. Cattell

1905-1998

born and raised in England

moved to the US in the 1930s at the invitation of Thorndike to work at Columbia (later worked with Allport at Harvard)

psychology should focus on measurement, not speculation

known for 16PF questionnaire

Cattel and Personality

data-based approach

personality is not just a description of a person, but it “permits a prediction of what a particular person will do in a given situation”

applied factor analysis to the understanding of personality (derived 16PF model using factor analysis)

data based / objective: used assessment and quantification traits to define and study the nature of personality

three types of data measure personality

16 PF

three types of data measure personality

L-data (life)

Q-data (questionnaire)

T-data (standardized test; e.g., projectives, aptitude)

best prediction is combination of all three

behavior and Cattell

____ defines traits

surface traits and source traits

surface traits

“surface behaviors”

clusters of observable behaviors that are visible evidence of source traits

vary based on situation

controlled by underlying source traits

source traits

underlying, fundamental elements of personality

stable / deeply ingrained

Cattell argues that ___ ___ are more important to understanding personality than are surface traits

responsible for the diversity seen in the personalities of those around us

16 PF

variations in human personality can be explained by a model with sixteen personality traits (source traits)

prediction of behavior based on how the 16 traits combine

questionnaire

multidimensional personality inventory containing 185 questions designed to assess 16 different source traits

questions arranged in several forced-choice formats

measures traits along a continuum from high to low (not presence vs. absence of source traits)

Cattell

Cattell’s 16 source traits

warmth (A)

reasoning (B)

emotional stability (C)

dominance (E)

liveliness (F)

rule-consciousness (G)

social boldness (H)

sensitivity (I)

vigilance (L)

abstractedness (M)

privateness (N)

apprehension (O)

openness to change (Q1)

self-reliance (Q2)

perfectionism (Q3)

tension (Q4)

Cattell and individual differences

ability traits

temperament traits

dynamic traits

constitutional factors

environmental-mold factors

nature-nurture ratio

ability traits

represent intellectual capabilities in navigating one’s environment (central to cognitive performance); Factor B

involve a person’s skill in dealing with complex problem-solving situations

temperament traits

style of behavior / how a person interacts with the world (e.g., being relaxed or intense)

reflect the general manner or style of an individual’s behavior

dynamic traits

the motivation behind our behavior

relate to what is often referred to as motivation

constitutional factors

biological reasons for behavior

traits that are primarily dependent on biological factors

environment-mold factors

environmental reasons for behavior

traits that are influenced primarily by environmental factors

nature-nurture ratio

qualification of a trait being due to biological vs. environmental factors (the example of “intelligence”)

represents the degree to which a trait is due to biological or environmental factors

Cattell factor analysis

identification of the source traits in order to predict behavior

Cattel believed that ___ ___ analysis can identify “building blocks” of personality (e.g., honesty or aggressive tendencies)

based on correlation coefficient and factor loading

16PF used in various settings: marriage counseling, job selection

16PF research: opposites attract?