AP Psychology - Scientific Foundations of Psychology

empiricism

empiricism

the view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation

structuralism

an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the structural elements of the human mind

functionalism

an early school of thought promoted by James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function-how they enable the organism to adapt, survive and flourish

nature-nurture issue

the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today's science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture

natural selection

the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival with most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

psychometrics

the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits

basic research

pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base

applied research

scientific study that aims to solve practical problems

industrial-organizational (I/O) psychology

the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces

human factors psychology

the study of how people and machines interact and the design of safe and easily used machines and environments

counseling psychology

a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being

clinical psychology

a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders

psychiatry

a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who often provide medical treatments as well as psychological therapy

Wilhelm Wundt

started the first experimental psychology lab; structuralism

Edward Titchener

William Wundt's student; founder of early field of psychology known as Structuralism

William James

Founder of early field of psychology known as functionalism; wrote first psychology textbook The Principles of Psychology

Intuition

an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, also known as a gut feeling or a hunch.

Hindsight Bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it... (I knew it along phenomenon)

illusory correlation

expected or suspected relationship between variables where non actually exists.

Theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events

Hypothesis

A testable prediction that is often implied by a theory ("If___then_____")

operational definition

A clear and detailed statement about how exactly data collected from the variables will be measured; allows for accurate replication

Replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic findings are valid

case study

a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

naturalistic observation

a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

survey

a descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group

Introspection

the process of looking inward in an attempt to directly observe one's own psychological processes

sampling bias

a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample; cannot be generalized to a population

Population

all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn

random sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member of a target population has an equal chance of inclusion

Correlation

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other;- often shown by naturalistic observation or surveys.

correlation coefficient

a statistical measure of the strength and direction of a relationship between two things (from -1.00 to +1.00)

Variable

anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure; correlation looks at the relationship between variables

Scatterplot

a graphed cluster of dots, (which represent variables) that shows the strength and direction of relationships between variables

regression towards the mean

the tendency for extreme or unusual scores to events to fall back (regress) toward the average.

experiment

a research method in which variables are manipulated (independent variables) to observe the effect of the manipulation (the dependent variables); Only way to determine cause and effect

experimental group

In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, (to one version of the independent variable)

control group

In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between groups (equalizes groups)

double-blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.

placebo effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone;

independent variable

in an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied

confounding variable

a factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study's results; random assignment controls for confounding variables

dependent variable

in an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated

Validity

the extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to

informed consent

giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

Debriefing

the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

descriptive statistics

numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation.

Histogram

a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution

Mode

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

mean

the average of a distribution, obtained by adding all the scores and then dividing by the number of scores

Median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it

skewed distribution

a representation of scores that is lopsided due to outliers (way-out scores)

range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

normal curve

Also called a normal distribution; a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (68% within 1 standard deviation) and fewer near the extremes.

inferential statistics

numerical data that allow one to generalize- to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population

statistical significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred randomly

Charles Darwin

developed the theory of evolution (basis of nature vs. nurture argument)

Mary Whiton Calkins

First female president of the APA

Margaret Floy Washburn

first woman to earn a Ph.D. in psychology

Dorthea Dix

Early pioneer in therapy for psychological disorders

social psychology

the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another

behavioral psychology

the scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning

humanistic psychology

historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential

Cognitive Psychology

the study of mental processes, such as occur when we perceive, learn, remember, think, communicate, and solve problems.

cognative neuroscience

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)

evolutionary psychology

Explores how certain psychological traits and behaviors have evolved over time due to their adaptive value in helping our ancestors survive.

Psychology

the scientific study of behavior and mental processes

critical thinking

thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions; it examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden biases, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

behavior genetics

the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior

Culture

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and passed down from one generation to the next

positive psychology

scientific study of the factors that help individuals and communities thrive and grow.

biopsychosocial approach

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural viewpoints.

biological psychology

the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes

psychodynamic psychology

a branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior, and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders (also known as psychoanalytic psychology)

social-cultural psychology

the study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking

developmental psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

educational psychology

the study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning

personality psychology

the study of an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting