IB ESS EXAM FULL REVIEW

List and explain a historical event or influence that had an impact on the development of the modern environmental movement. (1)

Ex: Minimata, Japan

In 1956, a chemical company in Minimata Bay released toxic methyl mercury into the waste water. As a result, organisms in the water like fish and shellfish were poisoned due to the contamination. Local people who consumed these fish developed mercury poisoning. This raised awareness about the threat of industrialization and the negative consequences associated with pollution in the environment due to poor and mismanaged industrial activity. Anti-pollution measures and the development of new policies and technologies to prevent this event from happening again were also promoted. (UN treaty, Minimata Convention on Mercruty)

Minimata disease still exists today and remains a health concern for the people of japan.

List and explain a historical event or influence that had an impact on the development of the modern environmental movement. (2)

Ex: Rachel Carson's "Silent Spring"

In 1962, Carson published a book discussing the aftermath of WWII and the devastating affects on the environment from a pesticide that was commonly used during the war, called DDT. This book raised awareness about DDT, which was used for agricultural and commercial purposes prominently during WWII. This pesticide threatened organisms as the food chain progressed as this pesticide would bioaccumulate in organisms (one organism would consume DDT, and the next organism to consume the poisoned one would thus possess a larger amount of DDT). This led to reduced population sizes, especially in higher trophic levels, and eventually, DDT was banned in the US.

List and explain a historical event or influence that had an impact on the development of the modern environmental movement. (3)

Ex: Bhopal, India

In 1984, an explosion at a U.S owned Union Carbide plant released 42 tonnes of toxic methyl isocyanate gas. Between 8,000 and 10,000 people died as a result within the first two days. This tragic event highlighted the importance of safety protocols and procedures in factories, as well as the emphasis of better international management(as this plant was owned by the U.S). Due to a lack of supervision, amateur workers were hired without the proper training needed to operate machinery, and thus gas was leaked as a result of a factory malfunction.

List some ways in which attitudes towards the environment can change over time?

- when a new resource or product is first developed, people are more likely to see benefits than potential problems
- key events prompt change
- environmental pressure groups help to raise awareness by distributing information and staging events (ex. Greenpeace)
- Environmental attitudes can become politically mainstream when economic consequences are considered
- International organizations (UN Environment Program, which raises the concern of environmental issues through conferences, as well as set goals and targets through national government strategies)
- School curriculum can reflect and promote changing attitudtes
- Changing technology can help spread new attitudes (the internet, electric cars, etc)

What are the inputs and outputs of an environmental value system?

Inputs:

- Education
- Cultural influences
- Media: the internet, social platforms, broadcasted news
- Social influences
- Religion
- Moral/ethical values

Outputs:

- Perspectives
- Appraisal
- Decisions
- Actions

Define an Environmental Value System

A particular worldview that shapes the way an individual or group of people perceives and evaluates environmental issues, influenced by cultural, religious, economic and sociopolitical contexts.

Ecocentrism

A nature-centered EVS that places intrinsic value on ecosystems regardless of their usefulness to humans. They see nature as having an inherent value:

- involving minimum disturbance of natural processes (lack faith in modern, large-scale technology involvement)

- combining spiritual, social, and environmental aspects

- aiming for sustainability for the whole Earth

- involving self-imposed restraint of natural resource use

Anthropocentrism

A human-centered EVS. It believes that it is important for everyone in society to participate in environmental decision-making. They view the world in terms of human values and experience:

- people act as the managers of sustainable global systems

- people can sustainably manage the global system through
taxes, environmental regulation, policies, and legislation

- Includes environmental managers and soft ecologists

- Debate is encouraged

- Ecosystems should be managed holistically so everyone can contribute regardless of their situation

Technocentrism

Technology-centered EVS. A technocentrist worldview sees technology as providing solutions to environmental problems even when human effects are pushing natural systems beyond their normal boundaries.

- Technology can keep pace with, and provide solutions to environmental problems
- Resource replacement can reduce resource depletion
- Emphasis on scientific research and prediction before policymaking
- Emphasis should be on sustained market and economic growth

Deep ecologist

Similar to ecocentric. Places intrinsic importance on nature for the humanity of mankind and believes ecological laws should dictate human morality. Humans are seen as subject to nature, not in control of it

Cornucopian

Extreme technocentrism and anthropocentrism. A worldview that we will find ways to make Earth's natural resources meet all of our needs indefinitely and that human ingenuity will see us through any difficulty. Biodiversity should be exploited for economic gain, humans can control environment.

Compare some of the strengths and limitations of EVS's.

Ecocentrism

- More sustainable, responses aim to minimize the impact on environment by encouraging restraint, raises general environmental awareness in communities

- Conservation is costly, little economic return, unpopular with those seeking economic development, requires individual change which is difficult to encourage.

Technocentrism

- Provides alternatives that don't inconvenience people, substitutes materials and avoids costly change, allows social, economic, and technological development to continue

- Solutions may give rise to further environmental, substitution doesn't solve consumerism, greater resource consumption

List appropriate contrasting issues to discuss different environmental value systesm

- Biodiversity
- Climate change
- Eutrophication (Ecocentric- encourage methods in balance with natural systems, such as less fertilizer and detergent use, which lessens phosphate. Use buffer zones to absorb water between runoff from fields. Technocentric- apply fertilizers more carefully, alternatives to phosphate, pump air through lakes to aid low-oxygen conditions, phosphate stripping )

Compare and contrast the environmental value systems of two named societies (1)

Native Americans and European pioneers:

Prior to the colonization of North America by Europeans from the late sixteenth century onwards, the country was occupied solely by Native American Indian tribes. Native Americans, in general, saw their environment as communal, and had a subsistence economy based on trade. Their low-impact technologies meant that they lived in harmony with the environment - something supported by their animistic religion where all things have a soul - animals, plants, rocks, mountains, rivers, and stars. The incoming European pioneers operated frontier economics, which involved the exploitation of what they saw as seemingly unlimited resources. This inevitably led to environmental degradation through over-population, lack of connectivity with the environment, heavy and technologically advanced industry, and unchecked exploitation of natural resources.

Define intrinsic value in an ecosystem

A characteristic of a natural system that has inherent worth, irrespective of economic considerations, such as the belief that all life on Earth has a right to exist.

Compare the characteristics of ecosystems and social systems

Social system

Flows: information, ideas, people
Storages: ideas and beliefs
Levels: social hierarchy/class
Producers: People responsible for new input (media, i.e books, films)
Consumers: Food, material possessions

Ecosystem

Flows: energy and matter
Storages: the atmosphere, biomass, soils, lakes, rivers, sea
Levels: trophic levels
Producers: plant, algae, bacteria
Consumers: Consume other organisms (organisms higher up in the food chain)

Justify your own EVS

Ex:

Growing up, my family practiced many positive activities to benefit the environment, which I developed as a result. This included recycling and composting from a young age, growing fruits and vegetables in our garden, as well as my mother being part of a non profit organization dedicated to preserving the environment and community through healthy food education, access, and advocacy... Discuss media influences as well (i.e school, television). You could also discuss cultural influences (the environment being a significant part of my culture--values on space, air, water, earth, discus buddhism and how they value all nature)

Compare the reductionist and holistic approach

Reductionism is when a system is divided into components and each of those parts is individually studied. A holistic approach is when the system is studied as a whole, observing patterns and processes

How to construct a system diagram

- Storages are represented by boxes
- Flows are represented by arrows
- Arrows depict inputs and outputs

Explain the difference between transfers and transformation

Transfers are processes only involve a change in location within the system, whereas transformations involve a change in state or new products.

List some transfers in a system

- Precipitation
- Groundwater (runoff)
- Heat

List some transformation in a system

- Photosynthesis
- Evaporation, condensation
- Decomposition
- Nutrient cycling
- Nitrification
- Respiration

List some storages in a system

- Sun
- Clouds
- Soil
- Organisms (animals, specifically)
- Plants
- Atmosphere
- Bodies of water
- Fossil fuels
- Inorganic/organic matter

Define open system and give an example

A system that exchanges both matter and energy with its surroundings. (i.e ecosystem--tropical rainforest: heat, energy, water, and air are inputs and outputs)

Define closed system and give an example

A system that exchanges only energy but not matter with its surroundings (i.e the Earth: sun and space would be inputs and outputs)

Define isolated system and give an example

A system that doesn't exchange either matter or energy with its surroundings (i.e the Universe)

Strengths of models

- They simplify complex systems and allow predictions to be made.
- Inputs can be changed to see their effects and outputs without having to wait for real events
- Results can be shown to other scientists and to the public. Easier to understand for the public

Limitations of models

- Can be too simple or not accurate enough
- Rely on expertise of people making them
- Different people interpret them different ways
- Depend on the quality of data provided in the inputs
- Different models can show different outputs even if they are given the same data, this may not be accurate

Define model

A simplified version of a system. It shows the flows and storage as well as the structure and workings. Involves some level of approximation and therefore loses accuracy.

Define entropy

A measure of the disorder or chaos in a system. More disorder \= higher level of entropy

State he first law of thermodynamics (law of conservation of energy)

Energy entering a system equals the energy leaving it, meaning energy can neither be created or destroyed

State the second law of thermodynamics

Energy in systems is gradually transformed into heat energy due to inefficient transfer, thereby increasing disorder (entropy). Entropy increases over time.

Define steady-state and stable equilibrium

Steady-state: the condition of an open system in which there are no long-term changes, but there may be oscillations and small changes in the short term

Stable: the tendency in a system for it to return to a previous equilibrium condition after disturbance. This contrasts with an unstable equilibrium.

Equilibrium is the state of balance among the components of a system

Define and give two examples of positive feedback systems

Feedback which increases change; promotes deviation away from an equilibrium

Ex: Arctic ice melting leads to positive feedback through decreased planetary albedo. When sea ice melts, it leads to decreased albedo because there is less surface for the sun's light to reflect off of, therefore more solar energy is absorbed at Earth's surface, and temperature ultimately increases.

Ex: Increased temperatures lead to the melting of permafrost, which increases the release of methane and thus warms the atmosphere again.

Define and give an example of two negative feedback systems

Feedback that tends to counteract any deviation from equilibrium and promotes stability

Ex: When an increase in temperature occurs, there is an increase in evaporation and cloud cover due to more water vapor. This increased cloud thickness/amount reduces the amount of incoming solar radiation and limits further warming--causing the atmosphere to cool down and go back to its stable temperature.

Ex:
Increased CO2 leads to increased plant productivity, leading to increased growth, resulting in reduced carbon dioxide as it is consumed by plants to create energy

Or

Predator-prey relationship between snowshoe and lynx in the boreal forest of North America

Define a tipping point

A critical threshold where even a small amount of change can have a dramatic impact and cause a disproportionately large response in the overall system.

What are tipping points caused by?

Continuous positive feedback loops, resource consumption, habitat transformation, energy production and consumption, climate change

Define resilience

The tendency of a system to avoid tipping points and maintain stability through a steady-state equilibrium

What are some factors that impact the resilience of a system?

Large storages and high diversity increases resilience, as well as complex ecosystems, which increases the guarantee that one of the many diverse species and organisms in the ecosystem will respond to the disturbance by adapting and thus maintaining stability. Ex: Tropical rainforest

Low diversity-\> low resilience

Define natural capital and give an example

Natural resources that are managed to provide a sustainable natural income from goods or services (timber, wood, flood, erosion protection, climate regulation)

Define natural income and give an example

The portion of natural capital resources that is produced as "interest". Ex: the sustainable income produced by natural capital

What are the 4 main types of ecosystem services

Supporting, Regulating, Provisioning, and Cultural

Supporting: essentials for life and include primary productivity, soil formation and nutrient cycling

Regulating: a diverse set of services that include pollination, and regulation of pests, diseases, climate, and hazards.

Provisioning: Services people obtain from the ecosystem such as food, fiber, wood, water from aquifers, etc. Goods can be from heavily managed ecosystems (fish and fish farms) or from semi-natural ones (hunting and fishing)

Cultural: derived from places where people's interaction with nature provides cultural goods and benefits. Open spaces, when preserved, such as parks, rivers, forests, and lakes, provide opportunities for outdoor recreation, learning, spiritual well-being, and improvements to human health.

Define sustainability

The use of global resources at a rate that allows natural regeneration and minimizes damage to the environment. (When removal and the consumption of resources don't exceed regeneration) Ex: The harvesting of timber may not be sustainable if the rate of forest removal is more than the annual growth of the forest (aka natural income).

Define sustainable development

Development that meets current needs without compromising the sustainability of future generations/ability for them to meet their own needs.

List landmarks that contributed to sustainable development

Stockholm declaration: 1927, UN Conference on Human environment was the 1st international meeting about the global environment and development

Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit, Local agenda 21\-- In 1992, statements were introduced for all levels of the government\---from national to local\---to help improve the environment

Kyoto Protocol: introduced attempts to reduce CO2 emissions in 1997

Brundtland Commission: 1987, defined the term "sustainable development"

Millenium Ecosystem Assessment

The most comprehensive scientific review of the present condition of the world's ecological systems and their ability to continue supporting our civilization

What are EIA's, and give an example/case study

Baseline studies/reports which are used to measure environmental conditions before a development project(road construction, hydroelectric power plants, housing, mines. etc) or change is taken place in an area of land. Ideally, it should be independent by paid for by the developer. Monitoring should continue after the completion of the project.

Example: London 2012

An EIA was carried out to assess the impacts of the London 2012 Olympics on the area of east london where the olympic park was supposed to be built. The EIA was structured to address the environmental effects of this part being built. For example, during the construction phase, the EIA predicted that construction traffic would negatively affect the flow of air quality and noise pollution to the environment around the site. Thus, they limited the times when construction was active.

What factors does the MEA measure/how can it be used to evaluate the progress of environmental sustainability?

Biodiversity, pollution, population or climate may be used quantitatively as environmental indicators of sustainability. They provide a review of the conditions of the world"s ecosystems and the services the provide, as well as the options to restore, conserve or enhance the sustainable use of ecosystems.

Define ecological footprint and explain its relationship to sustainability

The area of land and water required to support a defined human population at a given standard of living. The measure takes account of the area required to provide all the resources needed by the population as well as the waste that the population will produce. If the ecological footprint is greater than the area available to the population, this is an indication of unsustainability.

Where can pollution originate from

Organic or inorganic substances (waste, trash, fertilizer)
Light
Sound
Energy
Invasive species
Biological agents

Define pollution

-addition of a substance or agent to an environment at a rate greater than that at which the environment is able to handle the substance or agent and still be rendered harmless from it.
-an undesirable change in the physical, chemical, or biological characteristics of the air, water, soil that can harmfully affect living organisms

Distinguish between point source and non point source pollution, with examples

Point source pollution is when the release of the pollutants comes from a single, clearly identifiable site, for example, a factory chimney or the waste disposal pipe of a factory into a river.

Non point source pollution is when the pollutants are released from numerous, widely dispersed origins, such as gases from the exhaust system of vehicle or power plants.

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs)

Organic compounds that are resistant to environmental breakdown through biological, chemical, or photolytic processes

Persistent pollutants

cannot be broken down by living organisms and accumulate along food chains (such as DDT)

Biodegradable pollutants

harmful materials that can be broken down by natural processes, such as modern pesticides or proteins that are rapidly decomposed by sunlight

Acute pollution

Pollution that produces its effects through a short, intense exposure. Symptoms are usually experienced within hours. For example, asthma or vomiting from smoke or an oil spill

Chronic pollution

Pollution that produces its effects through low-level, long-term exposure. Disease symptoms develop up to several decades later. Ex: lung cancer or sickness from uv light due to radiation

primary pollutants

pollutants that are put directly into the air by human or natural activity. Ex: motor vehicle exhaust, industrial activity, chemical solvents

secondary pollutants

pollutants that are formed by the combination of primary pollutants in the atmosphere. ex: ozone, which forms when primary pollutants such as oxides of nitrogen and hydrocarbons react with sunlight and create tropospheric ozone.

Pollution management strategies

altering human activity -\> controlling release of pollutant -\> clean-up and restoration of damaged systems

Human factors that affect approaches to pollution management

Culture, Political and Economic systems (tolerance levels, capitalist societies may consider profit over environmental effects of pollution, rich countries have a "throwaway" and can afford to generate a large amount of waste and pollution.

Bioaccumulation

The build up of a non-biodegradable or slowly biodegradable chemicals in the body. Takes place over the span of ONE LIFE over time.

Biomagnification

The increase in chemical concentration at each trophic level--the end result is that the top predator may have an accumulation that is several thousand times greater than that of a primary producer. Ex: thinning of eggshells produced by birds at the top of the food chain due to effects of DDT. Takes place over the span of MANY lives and species of animals over time.

Species

A group of similar organisms that can breed and produce fertile offspring.

Population

A group of individuals that belong to the same species and live in the same area at the same time, capable of interbreeding

Habitat

the natural home or environment in which a species normally lives

Niche

The particular set of abiotic and biotic conditions and resources to which an organism or population responds. In short, a species niche is the complete description of a species as well as its specific role(s) in an ecosystem. An organism's ecological niche depends not only on where it lives but also on what it does.

Fundamental vs realised niche

The fundamental niche is the full range of conditions in which a species could survive and reproduce. Realized niche is the actual conditions and resources in which a species exists cue to biotic interactions.

List abiotic and biotic factors

Abiotic: turbidity, salinity, pH, temperature, dissolved oxygen, light intensity, wind speed, moisture, wave action, etc

Biotic: Living things (animals, plants, fungi, bacteria, and protists)

intraspecific vs interspecific competition

Intra- between members of the same species
Inter- between members of different species

carrying capacity

The maximum number or amount of a species that can be sustainably supported by a given environment.

Mutualism with example

An interaction in which both species derive benefit. Ex: Coral, lichens, bees and flowers, ants and aphids: ants farm aphids to eat their honeydew. The aphids gain shelter and protection from predators.)

Predation

An interaction in which one organism captures and feeds on another organism

Herbivory

Interaction in which one animal (the herbivore) feeds on producers (such as plants)

Commensalism

A relationship between two organisms in which one organism benefits and the other is unaffected. Ex: bird nesting in a tree, whales and barnacles, tree frogs and plants (frog uses plants for protection against predators)

Parasitism

A relationship between two organisms of different species where one benefits and the other is harmed. Usually, the parasite uses the organism as a host, living in it and harming it. Tapeworms, fleas, ticks, leeches, etc

Limiting factors

Any biotic or abiotic factor that restricts the growth population of prevent it from increasing further. These include light, nutrients, water, temperature, space, food, mates, water, etc

S-curve population growth

Pattern of population growth that starts out with a rapidly expanding population that then expands more gradually/ slows down until it reaches the carrying capacity

What are the phases of the s curve

Lag, exponential, transitional, plateau

J population curve

Population growth curve which shows only exponential growth. Growth is initially slow, and then becomes increasingly rapid, and does not slow down. After reaching its peak value, the population will suddenly decrease (represented by a dotted line)

Biosphere

The part of Earth inhabited by organisms.

Community vs ecosystem

Ecosystem: physical environment interacts with community Community: a group of populations living and interacting with each other in a common habitat

Photosynthesis

Plants use the sun's energy to convert water and carbon dioxide into sugars and oxygen

Respiration

breakdown of glucose using oxygen, releasing co2, water, and energy. For living organisms, this is the process of breathing, inhaling, and exhaling air.

Producer

An organism that can make its own food.

primary consumer

An organism that eats producers (usually herbivore)

secondary consumer

An organism that eats primary consumers (usually carnivore)

Tertiary/quaternary consumers

top carnivores- organisms that eat the secondary consumers

Pyramid of numbers

Representation of the number of individual organisms in each trophic level of an ecosystem

Pyramid of Productivity

A pyramid that represents the flow of energy through a trophic level and always show a decrease along the food chain. (only inverted pyramids)

Pyramid of biomass

A pyramid that illustrates the total mass of all the organisms in a trophic level.

Pathways of energy entering the atmosphere

clouds, ground, ground absorption, reflection, absorption by molecules and dust

Ecological efficiency (food chain efficiency)

the percentage of energy transferred from one trophic level to the next

Gross Productivity

the total gain in energy or biomass per unit area per unit time

Net productivity

the gain in energy or biomass per unit area per unit time that remains after deductions due to respiration

primary productivity

The gain by producers in energy or biomass per unit area per unit time.

secondary productivity

The biomass gained by heterotrophic organisms, through feeding and absorption, measured in units of mass or energy per unit area per unit time.

Gross Primary Productivity (GPP)

The total gain in energy or biomass per unit area per unit time fixed by photosynthesis in green plants.

Net Primary Productivity (NPP)

The gain by producers in energy or biomass per unit area per unit time remaining after allowing for respiratory losses (R). This is potentially available to consumers in an ecosystem.

Gross Secondary Productivity (GSP)

The total gain by consumers in energy or biomass per unit area per unit time through absorption.