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asexual plants
offspring are identical
examples of animal asexual
starfish, budding, fragmentation
parthenogenesis
females produce offspring w/ out fertilization of a sperm
thelytoky
female asexuals only produce female offspring
arrhenotoky
female asexuals only produce male offspring
monoecious
female and male flowers on one plant
dioecious
male and female flowers on different plants
hermaphrodites
both female and male parts on one flower but not much selfing occurs
monocious hermaphrodites
animal species with both male and female sex parts
sequential hermaphrodite dioecious
individuals with separate sexes, some species will look the same no matter the sex
sequencial hermaphrodites
species that change sexes depending on cues
protrandy sequencial hermaphrodites
change male to female
protogyny sequencial hermaphrodites
change from female to male
costs of sex
time spent
male to male competition
courtship
rejection
natural enemies
stds
benefits of sex
diversity of offspring through sexual reproduction
higher chance of evolving positive mutations, and a lower chance of not being able to mutate against deadly diseases and other factors
monogamy
having one mating partner
polygamy
having different mating partners
countership behaviours to attract
visual
chemical
tactile
environment will influence cues
sexual selection
female usually chooses
sex that involves more to offspring is the choosy sex
roles may be reversed depending on ecological situations
male strategy
have sex as often as possible
post-mating sperm competition
2nd mating increases reproductive success
2nd male may not sire any progeny (sperm quality competition)
female may chose
adaptations to reduce sperm competition
ejaculation size
remove sperm from previous mating
mate guarding
how females choose
nuptial gifts
good gene hypothesis (symmetry)
diversity of MHC genes to prevent disease
ecological concept
populations that are adapted to certain niches in the environment such as food, habitat, mating lifestyle
ecological concept pro
explainss role of environment in speciation
ecological concept con
unable to explain existence of same species in different environments
morphological concept
individual species have similar physical traits that distinguish them from other species
morphological concept pro
easy to classify physical traits to recognize specie
morphological concept con
does not reveal much about evolutionary history
cannot distinguish different species with simliar physical traits
phylogenetic concept
populations that share recent evolutionary history
implies reproductive isolation
phylogenetic concept pro
applies to all groups of organisms
phylogenetic concept con
does not describe gene flow
biological concept
interbreeding populations that do not reproduce with other species
all individuals within the species can successfully reproduce viable, and fertile offspring
genetic cohesiveness
ppulations of the same species that experience gene flow that mixes together their genetic material
genetic distinctiveness
different species cant exchange genetic info
biological concept pro
testable and describes gene flow of species
biological concept con
does not apply to asexual or extinct species
cant naturally test for species that may be the same but do not live close
clinal variation
gradient of traits in a geographic range
varying environment conditions favour different traits→ evolution within a species
ring species
population migrates around geographical barrier and 2 adjacent populations cannot interbreed
considered same species due to shared alleles and gene pool through intermediates
prezygotic isolation
separation of different species to prevent creating offspring
postzygotic isolation
isolation after fertilization to prevent offspring to reproduce further offspring
pre zygotic isolation mechanisms
temporal isolation
ecological isolation
mechanical isolation
behavioural isolation
gametic isolation
temporal isolation
having different mating times
ecological isolation
having different habtats
mechanical isolation
having different reproductive structures
behavioural isolation
having different mating signals
gametic isolation
having incompatible sperm and egg
hybrid inavailability
conflicting genes prevents development, fertalization occurs but hybrid is frail or dies early
hybrid sterility
offspring survives but is unable to produce functional gamates
hybrid breakdown
hybrid develops and mates with other hybrids and parents
the second generation will have high fatality and low fertility
long term reproduction isolation rather than immediate
allopatric speciation
2 populations that are geographically seperated causing evolution of reproductive isolation mechanisms
secondary contact reinforcement
increases rate of speciation
if reproductive isolation occurs then speciation occured
two species beig back together and not interbreeding
secondary contact fusion
slows down the rate of speciation
populations successfully interbreed so they can fuse back together
gene flow can continue and species stay as one
sympatric
reproduction isolation that occurs between two subgroups of one population
autopolyploid mutation
chromosomes fail to separate in the cell division, no reduction in the number of chromosomes and offspring do not have the same ploidy as the parent and thus cannot interbreed with the original parent species
pedigree collapse
the idea that some of your ancestors are not all individuals that different ancestors may be the same person
clade
all descendants of one ancestor
sister clade
clades that share an MRCA
non monophyletic
group that does not include MRCA or all of its decendents
ancestral
trait developed before or at MRCA
derived
trait evolved after MRCA
autopomorphy
unique to a single taxon, derived
symplesiomorrphy
shared between 2+ taxons, ancestral trait
synapomorphy
shared between 2+ traits, derived, useful for making phylogenies
outgroup
consists of species related to a clade but not included, can be used to determine if traits are ancestral or derived
homology
similarity that reflects common ancestry
convergence
not closely related organisms develop similar features through evolution
homoplasy
misleading similarities or dissimilarities
ex. trait missing or gained for seperate lineages
principle of parsimony
a particular trait is unlikely to develop independently in separate lineages
simplest possible approach is best, minimize number of homoplasies
intraspecific
interaction between two individuals within the same secies
interspecific
interaction between two individuals in different species
interference/ contest competition
one organism has the resource and another organism will fight to take it, dangerous and either party can get hurt
exploitation/scramble competition
2+ organisms will use the same resource, but always one organism will use up more resource
competition for resources
food
territory
mates
mutualism
both species benefit
commensalism
one specie benefits and the other is unaffected
predation
one specie benefits and the other is left dead or injured
parasitism
one benefits from the host and the hosts fitness is affected, but no direct death
herbivory
similar to parasitism, animal benefits and impacts the plants fitness, but no direct death
simple life cycle
a parasite uses one host specie their entire life
complex life cycle
the parasite uses at least 2 different hosts to complete its life cycle
parasitoids
parents are free-living but offspring develop in or on the host and kill it
red queen hypothesis
in the struggle of survival, species must constantly adapt and evolve in competition with other evolving organisms
continuous arms race
describes the ongoing competition between different species in an ecosystem, where each species evolves adaptations and counter-adaptations to gain an advantage
pesticide resistance
when a species develops a resistance/becomes less affected by a once-effective pesticide
adaptations to reduce enemy impact
physical
behavioural
autonomy
chemical
camouflage
mimesis
bodyguards
herd effect
dtection of predators
synchronised emergence
physical adaptations to reduce enemy impact
thorns, shells
behavioural adaptations to reduce enemy impact
agression
autonomy adaptations to reduce enemy impact
lose a body part
chemical adaptations to reduce enemy impact
resin, skunks
mimesis adaptations to reduce enemy impact
mimics something else part of its environment
body guards adaptations to reduce enemy impact
symbiosis
herd effect adaptations to reduce enemy impact
form herds to defend against predators, smallest in the middle to be protected
detection of predators adaptations to reduce enemy impact
confusion effect when herds disperse, predators dk which prey to go after
synchronised emergence adaptations to reduce enemy impact
prey all emerge at one time against predator
aposematic colouration
combination of chemical and physical adaptations to reduce enemy impact
colour warns predators of chemicals
host manipulation by parasites - cucumber mosaic virus
cmv changes the odour of the plant to make the plant more attractive to aphids
CMV reduces the nutritional quality of plant
aphids move to different plants spreading the virus
host manipulation by parasites - plasmodium
initially makes the plant’s odour less attractive, but more attractive when gametocyte stage is present
increased probability that the vector will pick up and transmit to another host
host manipulation by parasites - parasitoid A. nigripes
the hosts behaviour is manipulated in different ways depending on the ecological conditions
host manipulation by parasites - parasitoid A. nigripes- summer
manipulates aphids to move the undersurface of the leaf to above just before death