bio 1001 cycles 7-12

asexual plants

offspring are identical

examples of animal asexual

starfish, budding, fragmentation

parthenogenesis

females produce offspring w/ out fertilization of a sperm

thelytoky

female asexuals only produce female offspring

arrhenotoky

female asexuals only produce male offspring

monoecious

female and male flowers on one plant

dioecious

male and female flowers on different plants

hermaphrodites

both female and male parts on one flower but not much selfing occurs

monocious hermaphrodites

animal species with both male and female sex parts

sequential hermaphrodite dioecious

individuals with separate sexes, some species will look the same no matter the sex

sequencial hermaphrodites

species that change sexes depending on cues

protrandy sequencial hermaphrodites

change male to female

protogyny sequencial hermaphrodites

change from female to male

costs of sex

• time spent

• male to male competition

• courtship

• rejection

• natural enemies

• stds

benefits of sex

diversity of offspring through sexual reproduction

higher chance of evolving positive mutations, and a lower chance of not being able to mutate against deadly diseases and other factors

monogamy

having one mating partner

polygamy

having different mating partners

countership behaviours to attract

• visual

• chemical

• tactile

• environment will influence cues

sexual selection

• female usually chooses

• sex that involves more to offspring is the choosy sex

• roles may be reversed depending on ecological situations

male strategy

have sex as often as possible

post-mating sperm competition

• 2nd mating increases reproductive success

• 2nd male may not sire any progeny (sperm quality competition)

• female may chose

adaptations to reduce sperm competition

• ejaculation size

• remove sperm from previous mating

• mate guarding

how females choose

• nuptial gifts

• good gene hypothesis (symmetry)

• diversity of MHC genes to prevent disease

ecological concept

populations that are adapted to certain niches in the environment such as food, habitat, mating lifestyle

ecological concept pro

explainss role of environment in speciation

ecological concept con

unable to explain existence of same species in different environments

morphological concept

individual species have similar physical traits that distinguish them from other species

morphological concept pro

easy to classify physical traits to recognize specie

morphological concept con

• does not reveal much about evolutionary history

• cannot distinguish different species with simliar physical traits

phylogenetic concept

populations that share recent evolutionary history

implies reproductive isolation

phylogenetic concept pro

applies to all groups of organisms

phylogenetic concept con

does not describe gene flow

biological concept

interbreeding populations that do not reproduce with other species

all individuals within the species can successfully reproduce viable, and fertile offspring

genetic cohesiveness

ppulations of the same species that experience gene flow that mixes together their genetic material

genetic distinctiveness

different species cant exchange genetic info

biological concept pro

testable and describes gene flow of species

biological concept con

does not apply to asexual or extinct species

cant naturally test for species that may be the same but do not live close

clinal variation

gradient of traits in a geographic range

varying environment conditions favour different traits→ evolution within a species

ring species

• population migrates around geographical barrier and 2 adjacent populations cannot interbreed

• considered same species due to shared alleles and gene pool through intermediates

prezygotic isolation

separation of different species to prevent creating offspring

postzygotic isolation

isolation after fertilization to prevent offspring to reproduce further offspring

pre zygotic isolation mechanisms

• temporal isolation

• ecological isolation

• mechanical isolation

• behavioural isolation

• gametic isolation

temporal isolation

having different mating times

ecological isolation

having different habtats

mechanical isolation

having different reproductive structures

behavioural isolation

having different mating signals

gametic isolation

having incompatible sperm and egg

hybrid inavailability

conflicting genes prevents development, fertalization occurs but hybrid is frail or dies early

hybrid sterility

offspring survives but is unable to produce functional gamates

hybrid breakdown

• hybrid develops and mates with other hybrids and parents

• the second generation will have high fatality and low fertility

• long term reproduction isolation rather than immediate

allopatric speciation

2 populations that are geographically seperated causing evolution of reproductive isolation mechanisms

secondary contact reinforcement

• increases rate of speciation

• if reproductive isolation occurs then speciation occured

• two species beig back together and not interbreeding

secondary contact fusion

• slows down the rate of speciation

• populations successfully interbreed so they can fuse back together

• gene flow can continue and species stay as one

sympatric

reproduction isolation that occurs between two subgroups of one population

autopolyploid mutation

chromosomes fail to separate in the cell division, no reduction in the number of chromosomes and offspring do not have the same ploidy as the parent and thus cannot interbreed with the original parent species

pedigree collapse

the idea that some of your ancestors are not all individuals that different ancestors may be the same person

clade

all descendants of one ancestor

sister clade

clades that share an MRCA

non monophyletic

group that does not include MRCA or all of its decendents

ancestral

trait developed before or at MRCA

derived

trait evolved after MRCA

autopomorphy

unique to a single taxon, derived

symplesiomorrphy

shared between 2+ taxons, ancestral trait

synapomorphy

shared between 2+ traits, derived, useful for making phylogenies

outgroup

consists of species related to a clade but not included, can be used to determine if traits are ancestral or derived

homology

similarity that reflects common ancestry

convergence

not closely related organisms develop similar features through evolution

homoplasy

misleading similarities or dissimilarities

ex. trait missing or gained for seperate lineages

principle of parsimony

a particular trait is unlikely to develop independently in separate lineages

simplest possible approach is best, minimize number of homoplasies

intraspecific

interaction between two individuals within the same secies

interspecific

interaction between two individuals in different species

interference/ contest competition

one organism has the resource and another organism will fight to take it, dangerous and either party can get hurt

exploitation/scramble competition

2+ organisms will use the same resource, but always one organism will use up more resource

competition for resources

• food

• territory

• mates

mutualism

both species benefit

commensalism

one specie benefits and the other is unaffected

predation

one specie benefits and the other is left dead or injured

parasitism

one benefits from the host and the hosts fitness is affected, but no direct death

herbivory

similar to parasitism, animal benefits and impacts the plants fitness, but no direct death

simple life cycle

a parasite uses one host specie their entire life

complex life cycle

the parasite uses at least 2 different hosts to complete its life cycle

parasitoids

parents are free-living but offspring develop in or on the host and kill it

red queen hypothesis

in the struggle of survival, species must constantly adapt and evolve in competition with other evolving organisms

continuous arms race

describes the ongoing competition between different species in an ecosystem, where each species evolves adaptations and counter-adaptations to gain an advantage

pesticide resistance

when a species develops a resistance/becomes less affected by a once-effective pesticide

adaptations to reduce enemy impact

• physical

• behavioural

• autonomy

• chemical

• camouflage

• mimesis

• bodyguards

• herd effect

• dtection of predators

• synchronised emergence

physical adaptations to reduce enemy impact

thorns, shells

behavioural adaptations to reduce enemy impact

agression

autonomy adaptations to reduce enemy impact

lose a body part

chemical adaptations to reduce enemy impact

resin, skunks

mimesis adaptations to reduce enemy impact

mimics something else part of its environment

body guards adaptations to reduce enemy impact

symbiosis

herd effect adaptations to reduce enemy impact

form herds to defend against predators, smallest in the middle to be protected

detection of predators adaptations to reduce enemy impact

confusion effect when herds disperse, predators dk which prey to go after

synchronised emergence adaptations to reduce enemy impact

prey all emerge at one time against predator

aposematic colouration

combination of chemical and physical adaptations to reduce enemy impact

colour warns predators of chemicals

host manipulation by parasites - cucumber mosaic virus

• cmv changes the odour of the plant to make the plant more attractive to aphids

• CMV reduces the nutritional quality of plant

• aphids move to different plants spreading the virus

host manipulation by parasites - plasmodium

initially makes the plant’s odour less attractive, but more attractive when gametocyte stage is present

increased probability that the vector will pick up and transmit to another host

host manipulation by parasites - parasitoid A. nigripes

the hosts behaviour is manipulated in different ways depending on the ecological conditions

host manipulation by parasites - parasitoid A. nigripes- summer

manipulates aphids to move the undersurface of the leaf to above just before death