paleontology
the study of fossils
fossil
preserved remains or evidence of extinct or ancient organisms
extinct
term used to refer to a species that has died out; 99% of all species that have lived are extinct
microfossil
fossils of microscopic organisms
trace fossils
fossil footprints, steinkerns, imprints of artifacts of life
coprolites
fossilized remains of feces; shows what a species may have fed on
sedimentation
process where small pieces of sediment bury a dead organism; how fossils are formed
other substances fossils form in
tree sap, amber, tar pits or ice
the fossil record
the fossils where they are found, what they show, and the layers (time) that the species lived
what gets fossilized
mostly bone, teeth, shell, wood and other hard structures, soft tissue can be fossilized but it is rarer
several inferences that can be made from the fossil record
1: different organisms
2: today’s organisms are different from the past
3: comparing fossils from around the world tells us when and where species lived
4: many species are no longer around; they have gone extinct
types of extinctions
background and mass
background extinction
when natural selection causes extinctions occurring one species at a time
mass extinction
when hundreds or thousands of species occur in a short period of time; occurs because of a changed environment, ecosystem collapse or food web collapse
3 facts of the fossil record
1: fossils are distributed consistently; there is “order”
2: more recent fossils more closely resemble modern species
3: the order of appearance suggests a gradual evolution
problems with the fossil record
1: fossil record is discontinuous; it has gaps and is incomplete
2: missing transitional species, the intermediate forms
reasons for the discontinuity of the fossil record
not everything becomes fossilized, haven’t found all fossils yet
gradualism
slow gradual modification to new species
punctuated equilibrium
species evolve in spurts then don’t change for long periods of time; the short “window of change” would explain why there are gaps
tiktaalik
shows how amphibians evolved from fish, one-two-many bone system in lobes, fins have primitive elbows and wrists, had a neck, flat amphibian-like skull
archaeropteryx
proof that birds evolved from dinosaurs, although not a direct link to birds
skeletal features of reptiles (archaeopteryx)
teeth, long vertebrate tail, three claws on wings
features similar to birds in archaeopteryx
opposable hallux (big toe) and feathers
who did whales evolve from
land walking mammals
dating of fossils
relative dating and absolute dating
relative dating
comparing fossils/layers to other fossils and the layer they were found to determine when they lived; problem is that it doesn’t give an exact time that the organism lived
characteristics of an index fossil
1: easily identified
2: lived for a short amount of time
3: wide geographic range
good example of index fossils
trilobites
absolute dating
determined by radiometric dating or radioactive dating, uses radioactive isotopes and their known half-lives
half-life
amount of time required for half of the radioactive isotopes in a sample to decay (1/2, 1/4, 1/8, 1/16)
carbon 14
half-life is 5730, decays into nitrogen, only good for samples up to 60,000 yrs old, used on actual fossils, living organisms contain carbon
potassium & uranium
used to date the layers of rock that fossils are found in
geological time scale
timeline of earth; based upon rock layers and the fossil record
precambrian time
4.6 bya
Paleozoic era
“ancient life” 542 mya
mesozoic era
“middle life” 251 mya
Cenozoic era
“recent life” 65 mya
4 things must have occurred for life to come from chemical reactions
-formation of monomers
-polymerization
-formation of membranes
-heredity/reproduction
from various chemical combinations and energy sources we have formed
all 20 biological amino acids and others, several simple sugars, several basic lipids, all 5 nucleotides , even ATP
micelles and proteinoid microspheres similar to cell membrane
selectively permeable, can store and release energy, and they can grow and divide
formation of Earth
takes about 100 million yrs to form, objects collided together to from earth, collisions melted the earth and the elements arranged themselves by density
most dense elements
formed the core where radioactivity keeps the core melted (inner core and mantle)
medium density elements
formed the earth’s outer layer, the crust of the earth ( 3 to 7 miles wide)
least dense elements
formed the first atmosphere (hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen)
early atmosphere contained little
Oxygen
oxygen accumulated over time by
photosynthetic organisms
Abiotic origin of life hypothesis
life originated from non-living chemical reactions; simple molecules could’ve formed in a “primordial soup” of element/ compounds found on the early earth
4 things must’ve occurred (for AOLH)
-formation of monomers -polymerization -formation of membranes -heredity/ reproduction
Urey and Miller’s simulation of the early environment
created similar conditions that they believed mirrored the early atmosphere, tested to see if they could form basic molecules, wound up forming all 20 biological amino acids and others, several simple sugars, several basic lipids, all 5 nucleotides, and even ATP
polymerization
dehydration synthesis of monomers, has been shown to occur in non-living ways, heat on clay or rock, electrical currents, and UV rays have been shown to cause polymerization
micelles
simple phospholipids spontaneously from micelles, bubbles that separate hydrophobic interior from outer aqueous environment
proteinoid microspheres
collections of phospholipids and proteins self assemble into “proteinoid microspheres” which are membrane-like structures
3 living characteristics of living membranes
1: selectively permeable (some things can pass while others are excluded) 2: can store and release energy (forms a membrane potential) 3: can grow and divide (will accumulate more material and, once large enough, divide in two)
RNA prob originated first
-has some enzymatic abilities, ribosomes -has been observed growing in length and reproducing itself outside of living cells -forms proteins -has hereditary capabilities as seen in some viruses
first prokaryotic cells
most likely anaerobic as there was little oxygen around, most likely chemosynthetic using inorganic molecules
origin of eukaryotic cells
endosymbiotic hypothesis, mitochondria came from aerobic bacteria, chloroplasts came from photosynthetic bacteria
origin of multicellular organisms
soft bodied multicellular animals show up at the of precambrian (not many fossils because they don’t really have any hard parts)
origin of sexual reproduction
sexually reproducing are different with every birth, increase in diversity gave natural selection something to work with, natural selection acts on natural variation which is caused by genetic variation, speeds up the pace of evolution
Paleozoic era
Cambrian, ordovician, silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous, and permian periods