Grammar: Cases, Uses, Constructions, and Misc. - GREEK 111 and 112

alpha

Α α

beta

Β β

gamma

Γ γ

delta

Δ δ

epsilon

Ε ε

zeta

Ζ ζ

eta

Η η

theta

Θ θ

iota

Ι ι

kappa

Κ κ

lambda

Λ λ

mu

Μ μ

nu

Ν ν

xi

Ξ ξ

omicron

Ο ο

pi

Π π

rho

Ρ ρ

sigma

Σ σ ς

tau

Τ τ

upsilon

Υ υ

phi

Φ φ

chi

Χ χ

psi

Ψ ψ

omega

Ω ω

Difference between lowercase sigmas

ς is only used when sigma is the last letter in a word

σ is used the rest of the time

The lunate sigma has the same shape regardless of where in a word it occurs.

"lunate" sigma

Ϲ ϲ

Vowels

α, ε, η, ι, ο, ω, υ

Stops: Labials

π, β, φ

Stops: Dentals

δ, τ, θ

Stops: Palatals

κ, γ, χ

Liquids

λ, ρ

Nasals

μ, ν

Sibilant

σ/ς

Double Consonants

ζ, ξ, ψ

ζ sounds

σδ, later δσ

ξ sounds

κσ, γσ, χσ

ψ sounds

πσ, βσ, φσ

What is a diphthong?

two vowels combined in pronunciation

What is an improper diphthong?

The second letter (ι) eventually became silent. In the Classical age, however, the iota was still pronounced.

Diphthongs (Proper)

αι, αυ, ει, ευ, ηυ, οι, ου, υι

Diphthongs (Improper)

ᾱι, ηι, ωι

Iota Subscript (improper diphthongs)

small iota written under the vowels ᾳ, ῃ, or ῳ

Note: You don't need a macron above the "α" because it is always long when it has an iota subscript (it is superfluous, but you can still add it)

Iota Adscript (improper diphthongs)

iota written next to the vowels ᾱι, ηι, ωι

When do you use iota adscript vs. iota subscript?

You use the iota subscript when both vowels are lowercase. You use the iota adscript when the first letter is capitalized.

Aspiration

the h-sound added to the BEGINNING of a word that starts with a vowel/diphthong or rho

Rough breathing

῾ (h-sound)

Smooth breathing

᾿ (no h-sound)

Breathing with rho

There is only ever rough breathing with rho. No breathing means that rho behaves like an "r". Breathing means that rho behaves like an "rh".

Placement of Breathing

usually above the vowel or rho

Proper diphthong (capital or lowercase): above second vowel

Improper diphthong (lowercase): above first vowel

Uppercase initial vowel/rho/improper diphthong : to the left of the capital letter

What consonants can a Greek word end in?

ν, ρ, ς, ξ, ψ

number of syllables =

number of vowels and diphthongs

Syllabic Pronunciation

one stop followed by different stop, liquid, or nasal: usually pronounced together

one liquid/nasal followed by different liquid/nasal or stop: usually pronounced separately

exception: μν

repeated consonants: always pronounced separately

sigma followed by a different consonant: ambiguous

double consonants: cannot be shown to be pronounced separately, but they are (can put a hyphen immediately after the vowel/diphthong, but remember to separate the sounds)

Syllabic Division

vowel/diphthong separated from the next vowel/diphthong by one consonant or two or more consonants pronounced together: syllabic break comes immediately after vowel/diphthong

vowel/diphthong separated from the next vowel/diphthong by consonants pronounced separately: syllabic break comes between those consonants (at their break in pronunciation)

double consonant between vowel/diphthong: cannot show that the double consonant has two separate sounds, so the visual break is immediately after the vowel/diphthong, but the auditory break is between the sounds of the double consonant

Comma

,

Period

.

Colon/High Dot

(like English colon or semi-colon)

·

Question Mark

;

Capitalization

capitalize the first letter of:

- a proper name

- a word beginning a quotation

- a word beginning a long section (paragraph, chapter, etc.)

DO NOT capitalize the first letter of:

- a word beginning an ordinary sentence

Macron

"long mark"

placed above a vowel if there would otherwise be no way to tell that the vowel is long

Greek accents denote...

pitch

Types of Greek Accents

acute (´), grave (`), and circumflex (ˆ)

Acute Accent (´)

- indicates a gliding up of pitch

- can go above diphthongs, long vowels, and short vowels

- can appear on the antepenult, penult, or ultima syllable

Grave Accent (`)

- indicates a gliding down of pitch or no change in pitch

- can go above diphthongs, long vowels, and short vowels

- can appear only on the ultima syllable (ONLY IF the word would have had an acute on the ultima but is followed directly by another word with no intervening punctuation mark. In this case, the acute switches to a grave. The acute remains unchanged if there is a punctuation mark immediately after the word.)

Circumflex Accent (ˆ)

- indicates a gliding up followed by a gliding down of pitch

- can go above diphthongs and long vowels

- can appear on the penult or ultima syllable

Circumflex Accents and Macrons

Whenever you see a circumflex, you automatically know that the vowel beneath it is long; thus, a macron indicating the vowel's quantity would be superfluous. (you don't need a macron)

Placement of Accents

placed above/next to vowel/diphthong in that syllable (only vowels can have accents)

if breathing is also on that syllable, breathing goes to the LEFT of an acute/grave and UNDER a circumflex

proper diphthongs (lowercase and uppercase): above the second vowel

improper diphthong (lowercase): above the first vowel

capital letter (improper diphthong, vowel): to the left of the capital letter

Typically, how many syllables have an accent in Greek words?

one

Syllables in a Greek Word

ultima (last)

penult (almost last)

antepenult (before the almost last)

Syllable Length

LONG:

Long by nature: syllable contains a naturally long vowel or a diphthong

Long by position: the vowel/diphthong is followed by consonants pronounced separately or a double consonant (in general, only count/consider the consonants in a syllable that appear after the vowel)

SHORT:

syllable contains a naturally short vowel followed by no consonant, one consonant, or consonants pronounced together

**Note: αι and οι are considered to be naturally short diphthongs when they are the very last letters in a word

General Principle of Accenting 1

[Assume that the accent wants to be on the antepenult.]

The acute can stay on the antepenult ONLY IF the ultima is short. If the ultima is long by nature OR position, the acute must move to the penult.

(this principle considers both the vowel length and the consonants of the syllable)

General Principle of Accenting 2

[Assume that the accent wants to be on the penult.]

If the penult is naturally long and the ultima has a short vowel or ends in -αι or -οι, the accent on the penult will be a circumflex. If the penult is NOT naturally long, OR the ultima does NOT have a short vowel or end in -αι or -οι, the accent on the penult will be an acute

(this principle only considers the vowel length of the syllables)

Parts of Speech in Greek (8)

nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, conjunctions, prepositions, and particles

Case - Nominative

designates the subject of the sentence

also used for predicate nouns connected to the subject via a "linking verb" (not a direct object; the predicate noun is equated with the subject and therefore must be identical with it in case)

Case - Genitive

designates a noun used to modify another noun in the sentence

"of"

also used for nouns denoting a source or point of origin ("away from" or "out of")

Genitive of Possession

identifies the possessor of something or someone

may either follow or precede the noun it modifies

*commonly placed in the attributive position

reflexive pronouns and demonstratives WILL have ATTRIBUTIVE position

personal pronouns WILL have PREDICATE position

NOTE: Greek does not mind having two--or even three-- definite articles in a row as long as they are not identical

Genitive of Personal Agent

*used in a passive sentence

indicates the person doing the action (the agent)

*agent is a human being

"by"

used with the preposition ὑπό, πρός, παρά

Genitive of Value

- used in a context of buying or selling

- also called genitive of price

indicates what someone or something is worth

think about using ἄξιος with genitive nouns or ἀλλάττομαι exchanging something in accusative for something in genitive

Genitive of Time Within Which

establishes the time period within which a particular action takes place

implies that the action occurs at some point within the time period but does not go on continuously throughout it

"during"

- no preposition needed

Genitive of Comparison

- use the genitive case for the words that would have followed ἤ in a comparison (do this instead of using ἤ and matching the case of the "B" half with the "A" half)

Partitive Genitive

- a noun or pronoun in the genitive case is often added to an adjective or adverb in the comparative or superlative degree to identify the whole group from which a part is being singled out

- also appears with pronouns, substantives, and numerals

- may come either before or after the word it modifies, but it is normally NOT in the attributive position

- often used with numerals

- occasionally, (with numerals) the preposition ἀπό or ἐκ is added

Case - Dative

designates a noun that has some relationship to the action but is not the subject or direct object of the sentence (the indirect object when no preposition)

"to" or "for"

also used for nouns denoting means, accompaniment, location, or time ("by," "with," "in," "at")

Dative of Means

indicates the means or the instrument by which something is done (the "agent" is an instrument or tool)

"with" or "by"

does not require a preposition

Dative of Manner

indicates the manner or the way in which something is done

"with" or adverb formed from noun ending in -ly

does not require a preposition

Dative of Possession

indicates possession using:

- third-person form of εἰμί

- a noun in the dative case identifying the possesor(s)

- a noun in the nominative case identifying the thing(s) possessed

*dative has nominative

Dative of Personal Agent

indicates the person responsible for the action

- with perfect and pluperfect PASSIVE verbs

- no preposition

Dative of Time When

dates a particular action or specifies the moment at which it takes place

often used with preposition ἐν, but not necessary

"on"

Dative of Degree of Difference

noun or a neuter singular adjective used substantively in the DATIVE case, added to the sentence to make the comparison more precise

• modifies a comparison

Case - Accusative

designates the sentence's direct object, the noun that is being directly acted upon by the subject

also used for nouns that denote a destination or goal or an extent of time or space ("into," "to," "toward," "for")

- takes the place of an indirect object (replace IO with a prepositional phrase)

Accusative of Extent of Time

indicates how long a particular action lasts

implies that the action extends over the entire time period and goes on continuously throughout it

"for"

- no preposition needed

Case - Vocative

designates a person, either real or imaginary, who is being addressed

"Principles" of Enclitic Accenting

1) (try to) preserve the accent of the non-enclitic

2) make sure that there is an accent within 3 syllables of the end of the frankenword

Accenting with Enclitics Scenario 1: accent of enclitic vanishes

If the preceding word already has an ACCENT (either circumflex or grave) on its ULTIMA, the accent of the enclitic will vanish; the preceding word will remain unchanged except that its accent, if grave will become acute.

*A grave can only be used on a final syllable, and an ultima followed by an enclitic is not regarded as a final syllable.

Accenting with Enclitics Scenario 2: acute accent added to ultima of preceding word

If the preceding word has an ACUTE on its ANTEPENULT or a CIRCUMFLEX on its PENULT, the accent of the enclitic will vanish, but the preceding word will receive a SECOND accent (accent) on its ultima.

*If the preceding word is another enclitic or a proclitic, it too will receive an accent (acute) on its ultima

*again, an ultima followed by an enclitic is not regarded as a final syllable; thus a grave cannot be used there

Accenting with Enclitics Scenario 3: acute accent added to ultima of enclitic

If the preceding word has an ACUTE on its PENULT, the accent of a ONE-syllable enclitic will vanish.

If the preceding word has an ACUTE on its PENULT, a TWO-syllable enclitic will be accented on its ULTIMA; the accent will be an acute if it is above a short vowel, a circumflex if it is above a long vowel or diphthong.

If the preceding word is elided, a TWO-syllable enclitic will be accented on its ULTIMA.

*An acute on the enclitic's ultima behaves predictably and becomes a grave if there is no punctuation between the enclitic and the next word.

*It is not permissable to have two acute accents in a row

Relative Clauses

- a relative clause is a subordinate clause that plays the role of an ATTRIBUTIVE adjective, modifying a particular noun or pronoun, in the sentence

- modified noun/pronoun = antecedent

- relative clause introduced by relative pronoun that "relates" the clause to its antecedent

- relative pronouns agree with antecedent for gender and number

- the case of relative pronouns is determined by the function of the relative pronoun in the relative clause

- antecedent may come before or after the relative clause

- demonstrative pronoun can act as antecedent

- antecedent may be omitted altogether (rely on relative pronoun to determine if absent antecedent is human (masc/fem) or inanimate object (neuter) and singular/plural)

Interrogative Particles

- introduces a direct question that would otherwise be signaled only by a question mark at its end

- has no grammatical function except to indicate emphatically that the sentence is a question

- can either be omitted in English translation or represented by an adverb like "really" or "surely"

- most common interrogative particle in Attic Greek is ἆρα

Questions expecting a particular answer

expects the answer "yes": ἆρ' οὐ or οὐκοῦν or οὐ

expects the answer "no": ἆρα μή or μῶν or μή

Indirect Questions

- a direct question may be incorporated into another sentence and function as its direct object or (less frequently) as its subject

- speaker may opt to quote the direct question or transform it into an indirect question

Guidelines for Forming Indirect Questions in Greek

1. Mood and tense used in the direct question are retained in the indirect question (the mood may be changed to optative if the main verb is in a secondary tense)

2. Verb in the direct question may have to be put into a different person in the indirect question

3. IF direct question has NO interrogative word introducing it, add conjunction εἰ ("whether") to beginning of indirect question

4. IF direct question begins with ἆρα or any combination/alteration, the indirect question should start with the same word/combination

5. IF direct question begins with a form of τίς or one of the interrogative adverbs, that word may be retained, or the indirect equivalent may be substituted

6. Since an indirect question is not a quotation, its FIRST WORD is NEVER CAPITALIZED

Alternative Questions

a double question that presents alternatives

*like English, Greek often omits the word for "either" in direct alternative questions