Ancient Greek Philosophy, Rhetoric, and Democracy Key Concepts

Thales

Considered the first philosopher in Western history. Believed water was the underlying principle (arche) of all things. Known for naturalistic explanations instead of mythological ones.

Heraclitus

Believed in constant change—'You cannot step into the same river twice.' Emphasized fire as the primary element. Saw conflict and change as central to life.

Parmenides

Argued that change is an illusion and reality is one unchanging whole. Known for the idea 'what is, is.'

Solon

Athenian statesman and lawmaker. Introduced reforms that laid the foundation for democracy.

Cleisthenes

Known as the 'Father of Athenian Democracy.' Reorganized political structures into demes to break up aristocratic power.

Corax & Tisias

Early Sicilian rhetoricians. Credited with developing the first handbook on rhetoric to help people argue legal cases.

Themistocles

Athenian general and politician. Advocated for a strong navy, crucial in the Persian Wars (Battle of Salamis).

Pericles

Athenian leader during the Golden Age. Expanded democracy, commissioned the Parthenon, and delivered the famous 'Funeral Oration.'

Rhetoric

The art of persuasion.

Rhetor

The speaker or writer.

Rhetorical Critic

Analyzes rhetorical strategies.

Symbol

A sign that represents or stands for something else, often carrying deeper meaning.

Symbolic action

Communication (through words or symbols) that does something—like persuading, uniting, or dividing people.

Rhetorical agency is the capacity to act through discourse. Posthumanist agency emphasizes distributed, non-human forms of influence (e.g., technology).

Agency (Rhetorical and Posthumanist)

Material reality vs. Social reality

Material reality is physical existence; social reality is constructed through language and shared belief.

Rhetoric's importance in Ancient Athenian life

Central to democracy—citizens used rhetoric in courts, assemblies, and public life.

Polis

The Greek city-state, central to political and social life.

Agora

The public marketplace and meeting space of the polis, where rhetoric and debate occurred.

Assembly

The main democratic body in Athens where citizens voted and debated laws.

Ostracism

Practice of exiling a citizen for 10 years if they posed a threat to democracy.

Logographer

Speechwriter hired to compose legal speeches for others in court.

Delian League

An alliance of Greek city-states led by Athens, initially against Persia, later a tool of Athenian empire.

The Golden Age of Greece

5th century BCE, marked by cultural, political, and artistic achievements under Pericles.

Statue of Athena

Massive gold-and-ivory statue in the Parthenon, symbolizing Athens' power and devotion to its patron goddess.

Protagoras

Sophist who believed 'Man is the measure of all things.' Advocated cultural relativism and argued both sides of a case (dissoi logoi).

Gorgias

Sophist famous for skepticism: 'Nothing exists; if it did we couldn't know it; if we knew it we couldn't communicate it.' Wrote 'Encomium of Helen' defending Helen with rhetoric as magic.

Hippias

Sophist known for polymathy (knowledge of many subjects). Claimed he could speak eloquently on any subject. Advocated natural law over convention (nomos vs. convention).

Isocrates

Not technically a sophist, but an influential rhetorician. Founded a school. Wrote 'Against the Sophists' (criticizing them) and 'Antidosis.' Advocated rhetoric for civic life and education.

Sophists

Traveling teachers who charged fees. Critics accused them of moral relativism and teaching persuasion without regard to truth.

Arete

Excellence or virtue—goal of sophistic education.

Polymathy

Knowledge of many subjects; valued by Hippias.

Dissoi Logoi

The idea that there are two sides to every argument; training in arguing both.

Nomos = human law/custom; Physis = nature. Debated whether laws are natural or man-made.

Nomos vs. Physis

"Man is the measure"

Protagoras's idea that truth is relative to the perceiver.

Story of the Javelin

Sophistic legal example where guilt is disputed (who is responsible when a javelin kills unintentionally).

Cultural Relativism

Belief that truth and morality vary across cultures; associated with Protagoras.

Gorgias's skeptical saying/philosophy

1) Nothing exists. 2) If it exists, we cannot know it. 3) If we know it, we cannot communicate it.

Rhetoric as magic

Gorgias believed words had almost magical power to enchant and persuade.

Encomium of Helen by Gorgias

Speech defending Helen of Troy by showing how rhetoric, love, or fate compelled her.

Phronesis

Practical wisdom; the ability to make good judgments in specific situations.

Kairos

The opportune moment or timing in rhetoric.

Against the Sophists by Isocrates

Critique of sophists for charging fees and making false promises.

Antidosis by Isocrates

Defense of his educational program; argued that rhetoric serves the public good.

Plato

Student of Socrates, teacher of Aristotle. Critic of rhetoric unless guided by philosophy. Believed in transcendent Forms.

Theory of Dialectic

Philosophical method of question-and-answer to arrive at truth.

Trial of Socrates

Socrates condemned to death for corrupting youth and impiety. Recorded in Plato's 'Apology.'

The Academy

Plato's school of philosophy in Athens.

Aristotle

Student of Plato, teacher of Alexander the Great. Founded the Lyceum. Saw rhetoric as counterpart to dialectic and a tool for persuasion.

The Lyceum

School founded by Aristotle in Athens.

Aristotle's Rhetoric

4 functions of rhetoric: 1) Uphold truth and justice. 2) Teach to a popular audience. 3) Analyze both sides. 4) Defend oneself.

Artistic Proofs

Ethos (credibility), Pathos (emotions), Logos (reasoning).

Ethos

3 characteristics: Good sense, good moral character, goodwill.

Pathos

Appeal to emotions; Aristotle analyzed emotions by age groups (youth, middle-aged, old).

Logos

Uses reasoning; Dialectic is logical debate.

Syllogism

Formal reasoning.

Enthymeme

Rhetorical syllogism with an implied premise.

Topoi

Commonplaces used in arguments.

Genres of Rhetoric

Deliberative (future policy), Forensic (legal, past actions), Epideictic (praise/blame).

Deliberative Rhetoric

5 Classes of subjects: Finances, war/peace, national defense, imports/exports, and legislation.

Forensic Rhetoric

4 things legal rhetoricians should know: laws, witnesses, contracts, oaths; Inartistic proofs = evidence not created by speaker (e.g., documents).

Epideictic Rhetoric

Ceremonial rhetoric (funerals, celebrations).

Style in Rhetoric

Use of language; metaphors clarify meaning.

Delivery in Rhetoric

Use of voice, gesture, and expression in rhetoric.

Cicero

Roman statesman, lawyer, and orator. Believed rhetoric united wisdom and eloquence.

Quintilian

Roman rhetorician, author of 'Institutio Oratoria.' Advocated moral character in rhetoric.

Declamation

Practice speeches on historical/legal themes.

The Catiline Orations

Speeches by Cicero against the conspirator Catiline.

The Philippics

Cicero's speeches against Mark Antony.

Progymnasmata

Preliminary rhetorical exercises used in education.

Five Roman Canons

Inventio, Dispositio, Elocutio, Memoria, Pronunciatio.

Aspasia

Influential woman in Athens, companion of Pericles. Credited with teaching rhetoric and influencing Socratic thought.

Confucius

Chinese philosopher (551-479 BCE). Emphasized ethics, family loyalty, ritual, and speech as moral practice.

Women and Rhetoric in Ancient Greece

Women were excluded from public speaking, but figures like Aspasia had influence through men.

Hetaera

Educated courtesans in Greece who sometimes participated in intellectual life.

The Analects

Collection of Confucius's teachings recorded by disciples.

Li and Ren

Confucian scale of morality based on speech (5 parts): Ruler-minister, father-son, husband-wife, elder-younger, friend-friend.

Speech in Ancient Egypt

Medu Neter = 'divine words.' Ma'at = truth, order, justice; speech seen as tied to cosmic order.

Legal Rhetoric in Ancient Egypt

Evidence included contracts, testimony; arguments drew on Ma'at.