Politics Semester Examn

Partisanship

A strong loyalty to a political party. Negative view of an opposing party.

Example: Republicans only believe in their systems and rules and they view Democrats as a threat

Cognitive Dissonance 

Presenting as something and acting the total opposite way. You go against your values.

Example: A president promises the decrease of poverty in a country, but during their government poverty rises.

Social Media Bubble 

Only encountering with info and opinions that reflect and reinforce their own, like in social media.

Example: Someone who only follows and receives information in social media of one single candidate

Microstructure

Focuses on the smaller, more immediate aspects of social life. Interactions that occur in an individual or small group.

Example: The bill salary discussed in a company

Economic System

The way a country organizes the production, distribution, and control of resources and wealth.
Example: Ecuador’s mixed economy allows private businesses, while the government controls sectors like oil, education, healthcare, and taxes.

Macrostructure

Definition: The study of large-scale social systems, institutions, and historical processes that affect entire societies.
Example: The French Revolution.

Culture

Definition: The shared values, beliefs, traditions, and identity of a group or society.
Example: Catholicism or Christianity; traditions like Día de los Muertos in Mexico.

Politcis

Definition: The process of organizing society and deciding how power and resources are distributed.
Example: Elections where people vote for a president or mayor.

Social Structure

Definition: The organized pattern of social relationships, roles, and institutions in a society.
Example: Social classes such as upper, middle, and lower class.

Systemic Racism

Definition: Racism embedded in laws, policies, and institutions that disadvantage certain racial groups.
Example: Black people receiving harsher punishments than white people for similar crimes.

Intersectionallity

Definition: The idea that people experience advantages or discrimination based on multiple overlapping identities.
Example:

• Against: An Indigenous woman faces discrimination based on both gender and ethnicity.

• In favor: A wealthy, educated man with professional skills has more job opportunities.

Redlining

Definition: A practice where banks, landlords, or governments deny loans, insurance or services to people in certain neighborhoods, often based on race.
Example: In the United States, maps marked Black or Hispanic neighborhoods as “high risk.”

Individual Discrimination

Definition: Unfair treatment by one person toward another based on race, religion, gender, etc.
Example: A woman refuses to hire someone because of their race.

Institutional Discrimination

Definition: When rules, policies, or practices in organizations or governments unfairly disadvantage certain groups.
Example: Schools in poor neighborhoods receive less funding, affecting mostly minority students.

Side-Effect (Indirect) Discrimination

Definition: When a neutral policy unintentionally harms a specific group.
Example: English-only government paperwork makes it harder for immigrants to access services.

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Stateless

Definition: A person who is not legally recognized as a citizen by any country.
Example: Refugees who lose citizenship and are not accepted by another state.

Human Rights

Definition: The basic rights and freedoms humans have just for being human.
Example: The freedom of speech, right to vote, right to education.

Hard Law

Definition: A law that is official and can be enforced by courts or governments. But also if a country does not follow human rights, there are cases where nothing is done. It’s connected to sovereignty.
Example: A law that makes theft illegal — if someone steals, they can go to jail.
OR: If a country violates human rights and no one does anything.

Western Bias

Definition: When ideas, studies, or rules assume Western culture or values are “normal” or better than others. Countries that won WWII like the USA, UK, China, France.
Example: History books that emphasize European explorers and ignore contributions from Africa, Asia, or the Americas.

Declaration of Human Rights

Definition: A 1948 document by the UN that lists the basic rights every person should have.
Example: Article 26 states that all humans have the right to education.

Vulnerable Populations

Definition: Vulnerable groups of people that face discrimination or problems due to their race, culture, location, etc. They are more likely to be harmed.
Example: Indigenous people receive a lower level of education because they live in rural areas of the country. Or people with disabilities are often bullied or viewed as “different.”

Positive Freedom

Definition: Positive freedom is the freedom to do something or achieve your goals, usually because you have the resources or opportunities to act.
Example: A person can get treatment for an illness because hospitals and doctors exist and they have access to them.

Negative Freedom

Definition: Negative freedom is the freedom from interference or restrictions — being able to act without someone stopping you.
Example: You can choose your religion without being forced to follow another.

Aristotle’s Theory of Citizenship

Perfect Citizen
Definition: According to Aristotle, a perfect citizen is someone who actively participates in government and follows the laws.

Non-Citizens
Definition: According to Aristotle, people who live in a state but don’t have political rights, so they cannot participate in government decisions.

The State
Definition: The state is a political organization that governs a group of people, making laws, maintaining order, and protecting rights. Aristotle saw the state as the highest form of community created to allow people to live a good life.

Monarchy

Definition: A system where a king or queen rules a country.
Example: The United Kingdom’s king is King Charles.

Anarchy

Definition: A situation with no government or rules
Example: A region where the government collapsed, so there are no laws or rules.

State

Definition: A political organization that governs a group of people and territory.
Example: A country like the United States

Democracy

Definition: A system where people vote and participate in government decisions.
Example: Presidential elections in Ecuador

Rule of Law

Definition: Everyone, including leaders, must follow the law.
Example: A president can be taken to court if they break the law, for example: If they steal money.

Authoritarian Democracy

Definition: A system with elections, but real power is controlled by leaders.
Example: In Russia, people vote but leaders control the media and politics.

Representative Democracy

Definition: People elect officials to make decisions for them.
Example: The Ecuadorian National Assembly.

Direct Democracy

Definition: Citizens vote directly on laws and policies.
Example: Switzerland uses direct democracy when citizens vote directly on laws through public vote.

Presidential Democracy

Definition: A democracy where the president is elected separately from the general assembly.
Example: The United States democracy.

Parliamentary Democracy

Definition: A democracy where the government is led by a prime minister.
Example: The UK

Participatory Democracy

Definition: Citizens actively take part in political decisions, not just vote.
Example: Town hall meetings or community councils.

Islamic Democracy

Definition: A democracy guided and influenced by Islamic principles or laws. For example, citizens who conflict with Islamic religious rules may face limited freedoms.
Example: Pakistan

Social Democracy

Definition: A democracy that combines political freedom with social welfare programs so people have social justice and equality.
Example: Sweden

Separation of powers

Definition: Division of government into executive, legislative, and judicial branches. Executive branch → runs the country and enforces laws (e.g., president or prime minister).

Legislative branch → makes the laws (e.g., parliament or congress).

Judicial branch → interprets the laws and decides if they are fair (e.g., courts).
Example: The United States

Political System

Definition: The structure and rules that determine how a government works.
Example: Democracy, monarchy, or dictatorship.

Political gridlock

Definition: When the government can’t pass laws because of disagreement.
Example: When Guillermo Lasso used “Muerte Cruzada” because he couldn’t reach an agreement with the assembly, he had to shut down his government.

Sovereignty

Definition: A state's full control of territory and laws.
Example: Ecuador controls its border and government decisions.

Voter Apathy

Definition: Citizens don't participate in elections because they feel it does not matter.
Example: In the US voting is optional, so many people don’t vote because they don’t feel the need to.

John Locke

Definition: Philosopher who believed in natural rights (life, liberty property), consent of society, government power should be limited by laws, and in the social contract.
Example: He influenced the US Declaration of Independence.

Thomas Hobbes

Definition: Philosopher who believed in a strong government to prevent chaos, because humans are naturally selfish.
Example: He justified absolute monarchies like Marie Antoniette’s one in France which controlled everything.

Social Contract

Definition: Agreement between people and the government where people give some freedom in exchange for protection and order from the government.
Example: Citizens pay taxes so the government can provide security for them.

State of nature

Definition: The beginning of a society without rules or laws.
Example: A city where people live without any government, rules, laws or courts.

Populist leader

Definition: A political leader who claims to represent “the people” against a corrupt or elite group. They often use emotional messages and are very expressive and dramatic.
Example: President Bucaram in Ecuador presented himself as one of “the people” by using dramatic speeches and attacking elites.

Mob Rule

Definition: When societies have influence between them and the majority has a bigger say in the decisions of a country.
Example: Riots taking control of a city.

Accountability of elected officials

Definition: Officials are responsible for their actions and can be punished or removed.
Example: A mayor removed from office because of corruption.
OR
A president who robbed money from the country was sent to jail.

Colonialism

Definition: When one country controls and exploits another.
Example: Spain controlling Indigenous people in their territory in the 1500s

Special interest groups

Definition: Groups that try to influence government policies for their own interests.
Example: Environmental groups try to influence laws to protect the environment.

Cyber interference and disinformation

Definition: Using online platforms to manipulate information or elections.
Example: Fake news on social media about a presidential candidate influencing voters' opinions.