Psychology Review Notes (copy)

Nature vs. Nurture

The debate regarding the relative contributions of genetic inheritance (nature) and environmental factors (nurture) to the development of traits and behaviors.

Genotype

The genetic makeup of an individual, encompassing the specific set of genes inherited from their parents.

Phenotype

The observable characteristics of an individual that result from the interaction of the genotype with the environment.

Zygote Stage

The stage from conception to implantation in the uterine wall, lasting about the first two weeks.

Embryonic Stage

The stage from about 2 weeks to 8 weeks during which major organs and systems develop.

Fetal Stage

The stage from 9 weeks until birth focused on the growth and refinement of organs.

Teratogens

Environmental agents like drugs or viruses that can cause harm to a developing embryo or fetus.

Infant Reflexes

Automatic, unlearned responses to stimuli crucial for survival, indicating normal neurological development.

Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory

A stage theory outlining how children's thinking processes develop from infancy to adolescence.

Sensorimotor Stage

The cognitive stage from 0-2 years where object permanence begins to develop.

Preoperational Stage

The cognitive stage from 2-7 years characterized by symbolic thinking and egocentrism.

Concrete Operational Stage

The cognitive stage from 7-11 years where logical thinking about concrete events develops.

Formal Operational Stage

The cognitive stage from 12 years onwards marked by abstract and hypothetical thinking.

Temperament

Basic innate personality traits identified in infants, classified as easy, difficult, or slow-to-warm-up.

High-Reactive Infants

Infants who are highly sensitive and easily distressed by new stimuli.

Low-Reactive Infants

Infants who are less sensitive, less easily distressed, and may be more outgoing.

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

The difference between what a learner can do without help and what they can achieve with guidance.

Lawrence Kohlberg’s Moral Development

A framework describing stages of moral reasoning: preconventional, conventional, postconventional.

Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Development

A stage theory involving psychosocial crises that span an entire lifespan.

Kubler-Ross’s Stages of Dying

The stages of denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance faced by individuals confronting death.

Activity Theory of Aging

Successful aging characterized by maintaining social connections and active involvement.

Parenting Styles

Types of parenting characterized by varying levels of warmth and control: authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, uninvolved.

Personality Theories

Theories aimed at explaining the whole person, including personality development factors.

Trait Theories

Theories that focus on identifying and measuring stable personality traits.

Conscious

Thoughts and feelings that an individual is currently aware of.

Preconscious

Thoughts and feelings that can be easily recalled or brought into awareness.

Unconscious

Thoughts and feelings hidden from awareness that influence behavior.

Freud’s Psychosexual Stages

Stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) associated with different conflicts.

Karen Horney

A neo-Freudian who emphasized cultural and social factors in personality development.

Carl Rogers

A humanistic psychologist who stressed empathy and unconditional positive regard in therapy.

Reciprocal Determinism

The concept that behavior, internal cognition, and environment influence each other.

Self-Efficacy

The belief in one’s ability to succeed in specific situations.

Hans Eysenck

A psychologist who proposed dimensions of personality including introversion-extroversion and neuroticism.

Raymond Cattell

Proposed surface traits and source traits to categorize personality.

Five Factor Model (Big Five)

A model comprising openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism.

HEXACO Model

An alternative model of personality that includes honesty-humility as an additional factor.

Possible Selves

Representations of future selves that influence goals and motivations.

Self-Report Inventories

Objective questionnaires used to assess individuals' behaviors and feelings.

Projective Tests

Tests that use ambiguous stimuli to explore unconscious aspects of personality.

Sense of Self

An individual's awareness of their identity, qualities, and characteristics.

Person Perception

The process of forming impressions about others.

Explicit Cognition

Conscious and deliberate mental processes.

Implicit Cognition

Unconscious and automatic mental processes.

In-Group

A social group that individuals identify with and favor.

Out-Group

A social group that an individual does not identify with.

Self-Serving Bias

The tendency to attribute successes to internal factors and failures to external ones.

Blaming the Victim

Attributing responsibility for misfortune to the victim rather than situational factors.

Cognitive Dissonance

Psychological discomfort arising from conflicting beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors.

Attitude

A positive or negative evaluation of an entity that can influence behavior.

Stereotype

A generalized belief about a group of people.

Discrimination

Unjustified negative behavior towards members of a group.

Helping Behavior

Any prosocial behavior that aids another person.

Altruism

Selfless concern for the well-being of others.

Bystander Effect

The phenomenon where individuals are less likely to help when others are present.

Bandura’s Findings on Aggression

Aggressive behaviors can be learned through modeling and observational learning.

Stress

A state of mental or emotional strain resulting from adverse circumstances.

Health Psychology

A field integrating psychological factors in health and illness.

Psychoimmunology

The study of how psychological factors influence the immune system.

Daily Hassles

Minor everyday stressors that can accumulate and affect health.

Major Life Events

Significant occurrences that cause stress and require adjustment.

Microaggressions

Subtle, often unintentional expressions of prejudice contributing to chronic stress.

Acculturative Stress

Stress experienced when adapting to a new culture.

Walter Cannon/Hans Selye’s Pathways to Stress Response

Cannon: fight-or-flight response; Selye: General Adaptation Syndrome including alarm, resistance, exhaustion.

Chronic Stress and the Immune System

Chronic stress can weaken the immune system, increasing susceptibility to illness.

Optimistic Explanatory Style

An outlook where negative events are seen as temporary and external.

Pessimistic Explanatory Style

A perspective where negative events are viewed as stable and internal.

Type A Behavior Pattern

Characterized by competitiveness, impatience, and hostility, linked to heart disease.

Type B Behavior Pattern

Characterized by a relaxed and easygoing demeanor, less prone to stress-related issues.

Sense of Control and Stress

A greater sense of control can lead to lower stress levels.

Tangible Support

Material resources or assistance provided to someone in need.

Informational Support

Advice or guidance offered to assist someone.

Emotional Support

Empathy and encouragement provided to someone.

Emotion-Focused Coping

Strategies aimed at managing emotional distress from stressors.

Problem-Focused Coping

Strategies intended to directly address the stressor.

Normal Behavior

Behavior that is typical, acceptable, and adaptive according to social norms.

Abnormal Behavior

Behavior that is atypical and causes distress or impairment.

Normal Anxiety

A common emotional response that is adaptive and helps prepare for challenges.

Abnormal Anxiety

Excessive anxiety that hampers daily functioning.

DSM-5

The diagnostic manual used to classify and diagnose mental disorders.

Panic Disorder

A disorder characterized by recurrent, unexpected panic attacks.

Agoraphobia

Fear of situations where escape is difficult, often associated with panic disorder.

Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)

Persistent, excessive worry about various aspects of life.

Social Anxiety Disorder

Fear of social situations where one may be judged.

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

Development of symptoms following exposure to traumatic events.

Specific Phobia

Excessive fear of a specific object or situation.

Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID)

Presence of two or more distinct personality states.

Dissociative Fugue

Sudden travel away from home with amnesia for one's past.

Bipolar Disorder

Characterized by alternating episodes of mania and depression.

Major Depressive Disorder

Persistent feelings of sadness and loss of interest.

Persistent Depressive Disorder (Dysthymia)

Chronic form of depression lasting at least two years.

Anorexia Nervosa

Eating disorder characterized by restriction of food intake and fear of gaining weight.

Bulimia Nervosa

Eating disorder involving binge eating followed by compensatory behaviors.

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

Presence of obsessions (intrusive thoughts) and compulsions (repetitive behaviors).

Schizophrenia

A chronic brain disorder marked by hallucinations and delusions.

Borderline Personality Disorder

Characterized by instability in relationships and self-image.

Antisocial Personality Disorder

Disregard for and violation of the rights of others.

Psychotherapy

A therapeutic approach involving talking to address psychological issues.

Biomedical Therapy

The use of medication or medical interventions to treat psychological disorders.

Psychoanalytic Therapy Techniques

Techniques involving free association, dream analysis, and interpretation of thoughts.

Humanistic Therapy

Therapy focused on empathy and the supportive environment, such as client-centered therapy.