Language 22: Shallow Processing

What is shallow processing?

A method of understanding language that focuses on the gist rather than detailed analysis.

Why is shallow processing helpful?

It allows comprehension of ambiguous or flawed language without needing detailed analysis.

What is an example of a mixed metaphor in spontaneous speech?

Burning the midnight oil at both ends.

What do traditional models of comprehension assume?

They assume comprehension requires detailed mental representation and full lexical retrieval.

What does Just & Carpenter's model suggest about word processing?

Readers process a word while fixating on it and extract as much information as possible before moving on.

What is incomplete semantic commitment?

It refers to situations where readers do not fully specify what a word refers to, often due to unnecessary detail.

Give an example of a garden-path sentence.

While Anna dressed, the baby played in the crib.

What does the garden-path sentence demonstrate?

It shows that readers can settle for a 'good enough' interpretation rather than fully correcting initial misinterpretations.

What is pragmatic normalization?

It's when people rely on world knowledge instead of full syntactic analysis, especially in passive sentences.

How accurate are people when interpreting active vs. passive sentences?

99% accuracy for active sentences, but only 88% for passive sentences.

What is the 'survivors problem'?

A classic example where readers miss the anomaly in the phrase 'bury the survivors' after reading about a plane crash.

What does the survivors problem reveal about shallow processing?

It shows that people often focus on surface details and miss semantic inconsistencies.

How does the term 'survivors' affect anomaly detection?

People are more likely to detect the anomaly when 'survivors' is used because it implies being alive.

What were common responses from participants who missed the anomaly in the survivors problem?

They suggested burial logistics, assuming some people had died instead of recognizing survivors wouldn't be buried.

What is the implication of the findings from Barton & Sanford's research?

When a word fits well in context, it may lead to shallower processing, causing anomalies to be overlooked.

What is the significance of core meaning in language processing?

Core meaning helps in recognizing anomalies; for example, 'survivor' inherently implies being alive.

What are garden-path sentences indicative of in language processing?

They indicate that readers may not fully clean up earlier errors and can settle for partial interpretations.

What is the effect of using terms like 'injured' or 'wounded' instead of 'survivors'?

Detection of anomalies is lower because these terms do not inherently imply being alive.

What does shallow processing allow in everyday language use?

It allows for comprehension despite the presence of errors or ambiguities in speech.

What is the role of world knowledge in pragmatic normalization?

World knowledge helps readers assign plausible meanings when syntax is complex.

How do shallow processing and pragmatic normalization relate?

Both involve extracting a 'good enough' meaning without full analysis, especially in complex sentences.

What is the main takeaway from the shallow processing evidence?

Comprehension often does not require full, detailed analysis; partial understanding can suffice.

What does the survivors problem illustrate about human cognition?

It illustrates that cognitive processing can be superficial, focusing on context rather than meaning.

What is a potential consequence of shallow processing in communication?

It may lead to misunderstandings or misinterpretations of the intended message.

What is the relationship between shallow processing and everyday language?

Shallow processing reflects the natural tolerance for ambiguity and errors in everyday communication.

How does shallow processing affect comprehension of ambiguous sentences?

It allows for understanding the general meaning without resolving all ambiguities.

What is a key characteristic of spontaneous speech that relates to shallow processing?

Spontaneous speech often contains errors, yet listeners can still grasp the intended meaning.

What is the contextual fit hypothesis?

It suggests that detection rates of anomalies are higher in contexts where the word does not fit naturally.

What are easy-to-detect anomalies?

Anomalies that are clearly out of context, such as 'He spread the warm bread with socks.'

What are hard-to-detect anomalies?

Anomalies that fit the context well, making them less noticeable, e.g., 'How many animals of each kind did Moses take on the Ark?'

What is the shallow processing hypothesis?

It posits that anomalies are missed because their full meanings are not retrieved or integrated with the discourse.

What is the reduced awareness hypothesis?

It suggests that the meaning of the anomalous word is retrieved but does not reach conscious awareness.

What was the purpose of Bohan and Sanford's eye-tracking study?

To test whether there is system registration of anomalies without conscious detection.

What was the anomalous word in the example scenario about a jumbo jet?

Hostages, as you negotiate with terrorists, not hostages.

What did the eye-tracking study reveal about reading times for detected anomalies?

Total reading times were longer only when participants consciously detected the anomaly.

What conclusion was drawn from the eye-tracking study regarding undetected anomalies?

Undetected anomalies did not influence reading behavior at all.

What is the N400 effect?

A larger negative spike in brain electrical activity occurring ~400 ms after encountering an anomalous word.

How did easy-to-detect anomalies affect brain activity?

They produced a clear N400 effect, indicating semantic processing difficulty.

What was observed for hard-to-detect anomalies in the ERP study?

They did not elicit an N400 but showed a late positive potential (LPP) when detected.

What does the absence of an N400 for hard-to-detect anomalies suggest?

It indicates that these words fit well with the context, so semantic mismatch isn't detected early.

What is the implication of the findings regarding missed anomalies?

They support the shallow processing hypothesis, suggesting missed anomalies are not fully processed.

What does the term 'semantic anomaly' refer to?

A word or phrase that does not fit logically within its context.

What is the significance of the phrase 'negotiated with hostages' in the study?

It exemplifies a hard-to-detect anomaly due to its contextual appropriateness.

What are the two types of anomalies discussed?

Easy-to-detect and hard-to-detect anomalies.

What did the ERP study compare?

It compared the processing of hard-to-detect anomalies with easy-to-detect anomalies.

What was a key finding regarding undetected anomalies in the ERP study?

There was no evidence of unconscious detection; undetected anomalies showed no brain response.

What does the term 'contextual fit' imply in language processing?

The degree to which a word or phrase fits naturally within its surrounding context.

What is the effect of shallow processing on anomaly detection?

It leads to missed anomalies not being fully integrated into the discourse.

What does the term 'late positive potential (LPP)' indicate?

It reflects brain activity associated with the detection of hard-to-detect anomalies when they are noticed.

What is the role of eye-tracking in studying language processing?

It helps analyze reading behavior and detect anomalies in real-time.

What is the relationship between anomaly detection and reading behavior?

Anomalies that are not detected do not disrupt reading behavior, while detected anomalies result in longer reading times.

What does the study suggest about cognitive processing of language?

It indicates that context plays a crucial role in how language is processed and anomalies are detected.

What was the control condition in the eye-tracking study?

Authorities communicated with the hostages, providing a non-anomalous context.

What are the four factors that influence depth of processing?

1. Logical subordination 2. Linguistic focus 3. Discourse focus 4. Attention-grabbing devices

What is logical subordination?

Information is processed less deeply when placed in a subordinate clause.

How does logical subordination affect information detection?

False information is less likely to be detected when in a subordinate clause than in the main clause.

What experiment did Baker & Wagner (1987) conduct?

They used sentence verification tasks to show that placement of information affects depth of processing.

What is linguistic focus?

Using cleft constructions to highlight certain information, affecting how deeply it is processed.

What did Bredart & Modolo (1988) find about linguistic focus?

Anomalies are more likely detected when the focus is on the subject rather than the object.

What is the method used in Sturt et al.'s text change detection study?

Participants read a text normally, then see it again with one word changed to see if they notice the change.

What did Sturt et al. (2004) find regarding related word changes?

Participants were more likely to detect changes when the critical word was in focus.

What is discourse focus?

Manipulating the context around key words to highlight their importance.

How did Stuart (2004) manipulate discourse focus in his experiments?

By arranging words differently within sentences to see if it affects depth of processing.

What conclusion can be drawn from Stuart's experiments on discourse focus?

Both linguistic and discourse focus increase depth of processing.

What is the granularity hypothesis?

The finer the level of detail in a mental representation, the more likely a change will be detected.

What are attention-grabbing devices?

Elements that direct attention to specific parts of a text, enhancing depth of processing.

How do attention-grabbing devices affect anomaly detection?

They increase the likelihood of detecting errors by highlighting critical information.

What did Sanford et al. (2006) find about attention-grabbing devices in written language?

Words in italics led participants to notice changes more often.

How do attention-grabbing devices function in spoken language?

Vocal stress on critical words increases the likelihood of detecting changes.

What is a limitation of common tasks used to evaluate shallow processing?

Participants may read differently than in everyday situations, affecting findings.

What methods are sensitive for detecting disruptions in processing?

Eye-tracking and ERP measures.

What should be considered when evaluating findings on shallow processing?

How well findings generalize to everyday reading and comprehension.

What is the implication of using artificial examples in studies?

They may not reflect natural language processing in real-life contexts.

What is the effect of highlighting anomalous words in text?

It increases detection of errors, as shown in studies by Bredart & Doquier.

What is the relationship between focus and representational detail?

Focusing attention enhances depth of processing by increasing representational detail.

What was the goal of the text-change detection studies?

To investigate when semantic distinctions are not noticed.

What did participants notice more easily in text-change detection studies?

Related word changes when the critical word was in focus.

What is the conclusion regarding attention-grabbing devices?

They enhance depth of processing in both written and spoken language.

What is the significance of the Moses illusion in studying processing depth?

Participants are more likely to notice anomalies when critical information is highlighted.

What is the effect of discourse context on critical information?

It can either highlight or obscure the importance of the information.

What does the term 'shallow processing' refer to?

A level of processing where information is not deeply understood or retained.