Sociology - Beliefs in society - A-Level - AQA

Sacred vs profane

Durkheim's argument that in all societies, people divide the world about them into things which are sacred (holy) and those that are profane (not holy)

Malinowski - life crisis

states that a life crisis is a big event which causes disruptions and he believes that religion helps calm this down

Sacred vs profane

Durkheim's argument that in all societies, people divide the world about them into things which are sacred (holy) and those that are profane (not holy)

Malinowski - life crisis

states that a life crisis is a big event which causes disruptions and he believes that religion helps calm this down

Malinowski - 2 psychological functions of religion

- life crisis (religion helps us e.g. with divorce, funerals etc. )

-when an outcome is uncertain, we turn to religion for comfort

Robert Bellah

Civil religion - no matter what religion you follow, the fact that you are religious means you are part of society. He believes that the faith in Americanism helps to unite the American people

Secular society

Durkheim believes that society has turned away from religion

Parsons - Ultimate questions

Parsons believes that religion helps us answer eternal questions ( otherwise unanswerable questions) and creates social harmony

Parsons - justice

He believes that religion leads to an idea of justice in the afterlife - you will get what you deserve

Durkheim - collective consciousness

The basic set of shared values, beliefs, traditions and normals which makes social life possible.

Durkheim - main functions of religion

-Value consensus (we all have the same values)

-collective consciousness (all think In the same way)

Durkheim - cult of man

His prediction that religion will no longer be needed as we will be too busy / concerned with ourselves as individuals

Criticism of functionalist views on religion

Society turning to religion to answer ultimate questions is declining as science takes religions place

Marx and Engels

Religion is a part of ideology, a systemised pattern of beliefs which obscures and distorts the true nature of reality in ways which benefit the ruling class

False class consciousness

A term for (often w/c) believing lies and accepting things as they are

An example of civil religion in the USA is...

"God bless America" at the end of presidential speeches

Parsons - an example of an ultimate question

"Why do villains prosper?"

Marx - Religion as an illusion

"Religion promises happiness, but the happiness it promises is an illusion"

Marxists and functionalists agree that religion...

has psychological advantages

Marxists may suggest that religion is compensation...

...and comfort for the working class

Marx's prediction

He predicted a socialist revolution where the proletariat could overrule the bourgeoise and then everyone could be equal

Neo Marxist - Views on religion

Religion could help the oppressed. Religion could be used to unite people and bring about change. (E.g. MLK)

Antonio Gramsci - Socialist revolution

He said that if there is to be a socialist revolution, it would require 'proletarian action' and must be guided by theoretical ideas (working class intellectuals)

Hegemony

The term used to describe the control churches have over their members

Liberation Theology

The theory that religion can free the oppressed and can bring about change

Otto Maduro and Gramsci agree that...

...the poor need 'proletarian intellectuals' to guide them through a revolution

Otto Maduro

He is a Neo-Marxist that believes religion can free people. He suggests that people will listen to, for example; archbishops, because they have enough power to cause change.

Examples that support the liberation theology are...

Archbishop Romero (who wanted to help the poor gain power) and Camilo Torres (who stated "revolution is necessary to feed the hungry...")

Weber

He suggested that Calvinists invented capitalism (through reinvesting in farms to impress God). He used this as proof that religion can cause social change.

Calvinists

A religious group; ideas included not over indulging - e.g. oversleeping or over eating

Salvation anxiety

For example, Calvinists were anxious because they believe their fate is set in stone and there is nothing they can do about it. (They believe God knows who is going to heaven and hell from the moment they are born and it doesn't change).

Criticism of Weber - Eisenstadt

He criticises Weber's theory and states that the first great upsurges of capitalism in Catholic Europe before the Protestants (and it was more developed there too).

Criticism of Weber - Tawney

He criticises Weber's theory with the view that society had already changed radically in the capitalist direction before the advent of Calvinism. (New technology had been invented and introduced)

Criticism of Weber - Writers on Hinduism and Islam

Writers on Hinduism and Islam suggest that Weber misunderstood hose religions and failed to recognise that many elements in them which could have been (and still could be) supportive of rationally economic action.

Modern examples of how religion can being about social change are...

- Martin Luther King (Jr) 1960s

- Iranian revolution 1970s

Steve Bruce

He discusses religion as an ideological resource - religion provides beliefs and practices that protestors could draw on for motivation and support

Bruce - Ways that religious organisations are equipped to support protests and social change

- taking the moral high ground

- channelling dissent

- acting as an honest broker

- mobilising public opinion

Why were The New Christian Right unsuccessful in bringing about social change?

- campaigners find it difficult to cooperate with other religious groups (even though it's about the same issue)

- lacks widespread support and has met with strong opposition from groups who stand for freedom of choice.

Repressive state apparatus

The term used to describe any institution that reinforces inequality through ideologies (e.g. Religion)

The church - Characteristics

Large membership, inclusive, trained/professional clergy, acceptance of wider society, monopoly of the truth

Monopoly of the truth

The idea of a 'one truth' that a group believes and no one else knows it

The sect - characteristics

Small, exclusive membership, Total commitment, some opposition to wider society, no professional clergy and a charismatic leader

examples of sects

Jim jones temple, Salvation Army,

The denomination - characteristics

Large, inclusive membership, professional clergy, acceptance of wider society and religious diversity, no monopoly of the truth (they don't think they're the only correct ones)

The cult - characteristics

Small, individualistic, mystical, pragmatic, informal, short lived

Examples of cults

Spiritualism, transcendental meditation

NRM

new religious movement

World rejecting NRM's

Religious organisations with a clear notion of god. These movements are highly critical of the outside world

World accommodating NRM's

These movements are break aways from existing mainstream churches or denominations and neither accept or reject the world. They focus on religion rather than worldly matters and seek to restore spiritual purity of religion

World affirming NRM's

These movements lack conventional gestures of religion. They accept the world as it is, tolerate other religions. They claim to offer additional special knowledge or techniques that enable followers to unlock their own powers/achieve success/ happiness/overcome illness

Example of an audience cult

Astrology

Example of a client cult

Mediums

Example of a cultic movement

Scientology

Less participation in religion

Adult church attendance had fallen from 50% to 8% (1851 - 1990)

47% of marriages in 1995 were not in churches (were elsewhere)

More participation in religion

Pray tv - people are still interested in religion but may be religious in different ways (not at the church)

Statistics are socially constructed and therefore may be unreliable.

Less belief in religion

30% of people are atheists/agnostic

Between 1950 and 1990, believe in life after death fell from 54% to 27%

More belief in religion - Davie

She suggests that belief is becoming personalised and detached from institutions

For disengagement - Bruce

Bruce argues that the church had no official influence, and that the church has lost its power

Against disengagement - Roof and Mckinney

They argue that religion still has a big influence on people

Casanova - politics

Argues that religion is prominent throughout the world in major political issues

For differentiation - Bruce

The church has fewer functions now. He suggests that this is a feature of modernity, that we are no longer religious

Against differentiation - martin

Suggests that the church has differentiated itself from the state. Argues that it's lost non-essential functions so it can now focus on the most important functions

Parsons - values

He argues that religious values still underpin political and social values

For societalisation - Bruce

Argues when religion unites a community, religion is not really religious but a form of 'cultural defence'.

Against societalisation - Davie

Argues that churches provide a focus for national grief, for example the death of princess Diana.

Cultural transition

This is when immigrants move to a new host country and find support within a group with whom they share identity (links) with

Bruce - religious communities

Suggests that ethnic minority groups have strong links to religious communities in order to help with legal advice, housing etc.

Madood - on cultural transition

Suggests that second generation immigrants are more secular as they have no need to transition

Bogus baptisms

This refers to when faith schools are high in league tables and non religious people want their children to get in. Because they require baptisms, they baptise their child

Religion affiliation

There's been a decrease in the number of people who affiliate with religion

Wilson - secularisation in America

Suggests America was a secular society, not because people abandoned churches, but because religion there had become superficial

Bruce - 3 pieces of evidence for secularisation in American

- declining church attendance

- secularisation from within

- trend towards religious diversity and relativism

Bruce - USA - secularisation from within

Claims religion adjusting to changing beliefs amounts to secularisation. Religions functions have changed - its less about salvation and more about self improvement.

Practical relativism

The belief that others should not necessarily follow your beliefs

Erosion of absolutism

Refers to people being no longer sure that their beliefs are absolutely true

Dogmatic

Lives less led by religious scripture

Davie - obligation to consumption

Argues that religion is no longer an obligation, and now a personal choice

Vicarious religion - davie

Argues that religion is practiced by an active minority on behalf of the great majority who thus experience religion at second hand. Vicarious religion is when people dip in and out and use church when they need it.

Davie - believing without belonging

Religion in a more privatised form. Believing in religion without participating first hand in church

Spiritual health service - Davie

Argues that in Europe, the major national churches are seen as public utilities and like the NCS, they are there for everyone to use whenever they need to

Multiple modernity - Davie

Instead of a single version of modern society, she argues that there are multiple. E.g. US, UK

Day - Crit of Davie

argues that very few of 'Christian's' mentioned god. They were calling themselves Christian as a link to being white British. She therefore suggests 'believing in belonging'

Believing in belonging - Day

Found that people describing themselves as Christian's was actually a non-religious marker of their ethnic or national identity.

Bruce - religiosity and time

Argues that if you're not willing to invest time in going to church you are not really that religious

Hervieu léger - cultural amnesia

She uses this idea to refer to a forgotten traditional culture whereby traditional religion is not passed down.

Hervieu Léger - spiritual shoppers

People today now feel that they have a choice as consumers of religion. They now dip in and out of things, merge and collect parts to make our own identity

Postmodernist views on religion

Many sociological ideas are outdated and do not apply to our post-mod society.

'Meta-narratives' are becoming diluted as we have a bigger range of beliefs and ideas to believe in

Meta-narratives

Big stories that claim a monopoly of the truth (the one/only truth)

Lyon - post modernism

Argues that post mod society has a number of features that are changing religion - globalisation, increased importance of media, and growth of consumerism

Helland - media and religion

Discusses online religion and religion online

Online religion

Helland outlines this as a 'cyber religion' where you can visit virtual places of belief. The 'many to many' communication allows individuals to create non-hierarchal relationships and a sense of community

Religion online

Helland outlines this as a top down electronic version or the traditional, hierarchal communication of churches to their members, communicating only the officially approved ideas

Cowan - religion and network

Study of pagans found that their sense of self worth was gained from feeling they belonged to a global network

Lyon - re-enchantment

Claims that secularisation is not happening. There has been a resurgence of new spirituality and self religions

Bruce - socialisation of the next generation

For a belief system to survive, it must be passed down to the next generation. This is happening less as women go childless and husbands do not share beliefs.

Bruce - structural weakness of the new age religion

New age spirituality is itself a cause of secularisation because of its subjective, individualistic nature. It is based on the idea that there is no higher authority than the self. Therefore new age beliefs - lack external power, cannot achieve consensus about beliefs because everyone can believe what they want.

Stark and Bainbridge - religious market theory

They created this theory based on the assumptions that people are naturally religious and religion meets human needs, and that it is human nature to seek rewards and avoid costs

Stark and Bainbridge - religious compensation

They argue that religion offers supernatural rewards. For example, immortality is unattainable but religion compensates with life after death

Stark and bainbridge - cycle of renewal

They argue that religious decline leads to religious revival (through NRM's) then this leads to renewal (of new faith) which becomes religious decline again (when it doesn't meet needs) and the cycle continues

Stark and Bainbridge - America vs. Europe

They argue that because the US accepts a range of religions, they hate more freedom of choice and therefore religion remains. Whereas in Europe; one religion over a continent leads to a decline in religion due to a lack of choice

Beckford - crit of religious market theory

The theory is arguably un sociological because it has no explanation of the argument posed. It can also be criticised as religion is not biology and is learnt

Norris and Inglehart - crit of religious market theory

they argue that high levels of religious participation exist in catholic countries where the church has a near monopoly.