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72 Terms
Nationalism
Who: Giuseppe Garibaldi, Otto von Bismarck
What: political ideology emphasizing the unity and identity of a nation. Identification with ones’s own nation and support for its interests.
When: Peak of movements occurred in 19th and early 20th centuries, notably leading to unification of Germany and Italy.
Where: Europe
Why: A feature of movements for freedom and justice and has been associated with cultural revivals and encourages pride in national achievements.
Romantic Idealism
Who: William Wordsworth, Lord Byron
What: Emphasizes emotions, nature, and individual expression in literature and arts. It romanticized the past.
When: 18th to early 19th century.
Where: Europe
Why: Left a lasting impact, influencing art, literature, and philosophy by celebrating intuition, imagination, and a connection with nature as essential elements of the human experience; challenged Enlightenment Rationalism
Grimm Brothers
Who: Jacob Grimm and Wilhelm Grimm. German writers, folklorists, and linguists.
What: Known for collecting and popularizing fairy tales such as Cinderella and Snow White
When: Jacob (1785-1863) Wilhem (1786-1859)
Where: Germany
Why: Their work not only contributed to the literary landscape but also played a crucial role in preserving cultural heritage and influencing subsequent generations of storytellers worldwide. NATIONAL culture and literature
Johann Gottlieb Fichte
Who: German philosopher
What: known for role in development of German idealism. Founding figure of the philosophical movement known as German idealism- which emphasized limits of knowledge.
When: influential Ideas emerged in late 18th, early 19th century
Where: Germany
Why: Shaped the intellectual landscape and contributed to the broader movement of German idealism. Fichte’s emphasis on the self as the foundation of reality left a lasting impact on philosophical thought like nihilism, etc.
Pan-Slavism
Who: František Palacký, Ivan Sergeyevich Aksakov
What: political and cultural movement advocating for the unity of Slavic peoples. An example of nationalism; recognized a common ethnic background among the various Slav peoples of eastern and east central Europe and sought to unite those peoples for the achievement of common cultural and political goals. Sought common bonds against imperial rule and shared cultural identity.
When: 19th and early 20th centuries
Where: Eastern Europe and the Balkans.
Why: Pan-Slavism significantly influenced the geopolitical landscape, contributing to the complex dynamics leading up to World War I, as Slavic nations aimed for independence and solidarity against external influences.
Pogroms
Who: Various communities, but mostly targeted Jewish populations.
What: Violent, organized attacks (often encouraged or tolerated by authorities) inflicted with the aim of massacring or expelling an ethnic or religious group, particularly Jews.
When: late 19th and 20th century
Where: eastern Europe with notable instances in Russia and Ukraine.
Why: The motives behind pogroms were complex, involving anti-Semitic sentiments, economic tensions, and political upheavals, leading to significant consequences for Jewish communities and shaping migration patterns in subsequent years.
Racialism
Who: Arthur de Gobineau, Adolf Hitler
What: A belief system asserting inherent differences and hierarchies among human races. Notably influenced colonialism and the development of racist ideologies
When: 19th and 20th centuries
Where: Globally
Why: Racialist ideas fueled discriminatory policies, contributing to events like the Holocaust, and continue to have far-reaching social and political implications, emphasizing the importance of understanding and addressing systemic racism in contemporary societies.
Guiseppe Mazzini
Giuseppe Mazzini
Who: Italian patriot and nationalist
What: played a key role in the movement for italian unification. Advocated for a unified Italian republic and was a founding member of the secret society “Young Italy”
When: Influence peaked in mid 1800s
Where: Italy
Why: His efforts significantly contributed to the eventual establishment of a unified Italy in 1861. Mazzini's dedication to national liberation and republican ideals left a lasting legacy, inspiring movements for independence and democracy worldwide.
Camillo di Cavour
Who: Also known as count Cavour, leading statesman and architect for Italian unification. Worked alongside Guiseppe Garibaldi.
What: Serving as the Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia in the mid-19th century, Cavour pursued diplomatic and political strategies to unify Italy under the leadership of the Piedmontese monarchy. His pragmatic approach included forming alliances, such as with France, and orchestrating diplomatic maneuvers that contributed significantly to the establishment of the Kingdom of Italy in 1861.
When: 1810-1861
Where: Italy
Why: Cavour's political acumen and statecraft played a pivotal role in the realization of Italian unity.
Otto Von Bismarck
Who: Statesman and architect of German Unification
What: Prime minister of the kingdom of Prussia and later the first Chancellor of the German Empire. Bismarck employed a combination of realpolitik, military prowess, and diplomatic skill to unify the German states under Prussian dominance. His leadership in wars against Denmark, Austria, and France, as well as his orchestration of the creation of the German Empire in 1871, marked the culmination of his efforts. later German Empire.
When: 19th century/ 1860s
Where: Germany/ Prussia. Led wars in Denmark, Austria, and France
Why: Bismarck's political maneuvering and nation-building strategies significantly reshaped the balance of power in Europe and laid the foundation for the later German Empire.
Christian Socialist Party
Who: Ferdinand Lassalle, Karl Lueger
What: political movement in the 19th century advocating for social justice and labor reform within a Christian framework. Sought to address the social and economic inequalities arising from industrialization through a combination of Christian ethics and socialist principles
When: mid 1800s
Where: Europe but mostly United Kingdom
Why: While short-lived, the Christian Socialist Party contributed to the broader discussion on the intersection of religious values and social justice, influencing subsequent movements that sought to reconcile Christian ethics with concerns for workers' rights and social welfare.
Karl Leuger
Who: Prominent Austrian politician associated with the Christain Social party. Served as mayor of Vienna from 1897-1910.
What: Lueger was known for his populist and anti-Semitic rhetoric. Despite his controversial views, he implemented social and urban reforms that appealed to a broad segment of the population.
When: active in late 1800s
Where: Austria
Why: Lueger's political career and leadership in Vienna highlighted the complex interplay between social reform, populism, and divisive ideologies, leaving a contested legacy due to his anti-Semitic stance and the subsequent influence of some of his ideas on Austrian politics.
Dreyfus Affair
Who: Alfred Dreyfus, a French army officer of Jewish descent
What: A political scandal in France during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Dreyfus was wrongly convicted of treason for allegedly passing military secrets to Germany.
Where: The affair primarily unfolded in France, particularly in Paris, where Dreyfus was tried and imprisoned, and in the media where the case was widely covered.
When: 1894-1906
Significance: Revealed deep-seated anti-Semitism in French society and exposed flaws in the French justice system and military establishment. It also divided French society between Dreyfusards (supporters of Alfred Dreyfus) and anti-Dreyfusards, leading to significant social and political upheaval.
Zionism
Who: Jewish intellectuals and activists; Theodor Herzl
What: A political and cultural movement aiming to establish a Jewish state in Palestine, the historical homeland of the Jewish people, in response to anti-Semitism and persecution experienced by Jews in Europe.
Where: The movement originated in Europe, particularly in Eastern Europe where Jewish communities faced discrimination and violence. However, its influence extended globally, particularly to regions with significant Jewish populations.
When: Zionism emerged as a significant movement in the late 19th century, gaining momentum amidst increasing anti-Semitic sentiments in Europe. The First Zionist Congress, organized by Theodor Herzl, took place in 1897, marking a pivotal moment in the formalization of Zionist ideology.
Significance: Played a crucial role in shaping Jewish identity and providing a solution to the ongoing persecution of Jews in Europe. It laid the groundwork for the eventual establishment of the State of Israel in 1948, fulfilling the long-held aspirations of many Jews for a homeland of their own. Sparked debates and controversies, both within Jewish communities and internationally, regarding the rights of Jews to self-determination, the legitimacy of Jewish claims to Palestine, and the consequences for Palestinian Arabs living in the region.
Theodore Herzl
Who: Austro-Hungarian journalist, playwright, and political activist of Jewish descent. He is considered the founder of modern political Zionism.
What: Advocated for the establishment of a Jewish state as a solution to anti-Semitism. He articulated his ideas in his seminal work, "The Jewish State," published in 1896, where he argued for the creation of a homeland for the Jewish people.
Where: Primarily centered in Europe, especially in Austria-Hungary and later in France, where he convened the First Zionist Congress in Basel, Switzerland, in 1897.
When: Herzl's involvement in the Zionist movement gained prominence in the late 19th century. The First Zionist Congress in 1897 marked a pivotal moment in the formalization of Zionist ideology and organization.
Significance: Herzl's vision and leadership laid the foundation for the Zionist movement, which ultimately led to the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948.
Crimean War
Who: The Crimean War involved multiple parties, primarily the Russian Empire on one side and an alliance of the Ottoman Empire, France, Britain, and Sardinia on the other.
What: The Crimean War was a conflict fought from 1853 to 1856 primarily over religious and territorial disputes in the Middle East, particularly regarding access to holy sites in Jerusalem. It also involved power struggles between European nations and Russia over influence in the region.
Where: The war was primarily fought on the Crimean Peninsula, located in present-day Ukraine, where the main battles, including the Siege of Sevastopol, took place. However, naval battles occurred in the Baltic Sea, Black Sea, and the Mediterranean.
When: The Crimean War lasted from October 1853, when Russia declared war on the Ottoman Empire, to February 1856, when the Treaty of Paris was signed, officially ending the conflict.
Significance: The Crimean War highlighted the need for reform and modernization amongst the participating armies, contributed to the decline of the Russian Empire’s influence in Europe, and reshaped the balance of power in Europe and the Middle East.
Treaty of Adrianople
Who: Ottoman Empire and the Russian Empire
What: Also known as the Treaty of Edirne, was a peace treaty signed on September 14, 1829, ending the Russo-Turkish War of 1828–1829. It aimed to resolve territorial disputes and secure peace between the two empires.
Where: The treaty was signed in Edirne (Adrianople), a city in modern-day Turkey, which was then part of the Ottoman Empire.
When: The Treaty of Adrianople was signed on September 14, 1829, following the conclusion of the Russo-Turkish War of 1828–1829.
Significance: Highlighted the Ottoman Empire’s declining power in Europe, contributed to growing tensions between European powers over balance of power in the Balkans and Eastern Europe, and set the stage for the Crimean War as European powers vied for influence in the declining Ottoman Empire.
Victor Emannuel II
Who: King of Sardinia from 1849 until 1861 when he became the first King of a united Italy, reigning until his death in 1878.
What: Played a pivotal role in the unification of Italy, known as the Risorgimento, leading the Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont in wars against Austria and other Italian states to unify the Italian peninsula.
Where: His reign began in Turin, the capital of the Kingdom of Sardinia, and he later ruled from Florence, Rome, and finally, the unified capital of Italy, Rome.
When: Reign spanned from 1849 to 1878, during a crucial period in Italian history marked by the Risorgimento and the unification of Italy.
Significance: One of the founding fathers of modern Italy due to his central role in the unification process, leading the newly unified Italy as its first king.
Realpolitik
Who: Otto von Bismarck in Germany and Camillo di Cavour in Italy.
What: Realpolitik, literally meaning "politics of reality," was characterized by a pragmatic and practical approach to politics and diplomacy. It prioritized national interests, power dynamics, and strategic considerations over moral or ideological concerns.
Where: Realpolitik originated and found prominence in Europe during the 19th century, particularly in states undergoing processes of unification or consolidation, such as Germany and Italy.
When: Realpolitik gained prominence in the mid-19th century, particularly during the era of European nationalism and the process of state-building and unification in various European regions.
Significance: Realpolitik played a crucial role in the unification of Germany and Italy and contributed to the formation of alliances in Europe, which prepared the geopolitical landscape for World War I.
Giuseppe Garibaldi
Who: Italian general, patriot, and nationalist leader who played a central role in the unification of Italy during the 19th century.
What: Key figure in the Risorgimento, the movement for Italian unification. He led volunteer forces known as the "Redshirts" in military campaigns to liberate and unify various regions of Italy.
Where: His military campaigns took place across the Italian peninsula, including Sicily, Naples, and the Papal States, as well as in South America, where he fought in various independence movements.
When: His active involvement in Italian unification occurred primarily in the mid-19th century, with his most significant military campaigns taking place in the 1860s.
Significance: His willingness to cooperate with other leaders of the Risorgimento, such as Camillo di Cavour and Victor Emmanuel II, contributed to the success of the Italian unification movement.
Kaiser Wilhelm II
Who: The last German Emperor (Kaiser) and King of Prussia, reigning from 1888 until his abdication in 1918 at the end of World War I.
What: A central figure in late 19th and early 20th-century Europe, known for his aggressive foreign policy, militarism, and role in the outbreak of World War I.
Where: Ruled from Berlin, the capital of the German Empire, and his actions had significant impacts across Europe and the world.
When: Reign began in 1888 following the death of his father, Emperor Frederick III, and lasted until his abdication in 1918 at the end of World War I.
Significance: His expansionist and militaristic foreign policy, as well as his aggressive support of Austria-Hungary, contributed to the arms race and tensions that led to World War I.
Three Emperor’s League
Who: An alliance between the monarchs of Germany (Wilhelm I), Russia (Alexander II), and Austria-Hungary (Franz Joseph I).
What: Formed in 1873 as a mutual defense agreement and diplomatic alliance between the three empires. It aimed to maintain stability in Eastern Europe and to counterbalance the influence of France and Britain.
Where: The alliance was primarily focused on Eastern Europe, where the interests of the three empires intersected, including the Balkans and the Danube region.
When: 1873-1878
Significance: Its failure to prevent conflict in the Balkans foreshadowed the conflicts, especially in Austria-Hungary, that would erupt into World War I.
Reinsurance Treaty
Who: A secret agreement between the German Empire, under Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, and the Russian Empire, under Tsar Alexander III.
What: A diplomatic agreement aimed at ensuring that Germany and Russia would remain neutral or supportive of each other in case of a conflict involving either party. It stipulated that each party would remain neutral if the other became involved in a war with a third party, unless Germany attacked France or Russia attacked Austria-Hungary.
Where: Berlin, Germany.
When: 1887-1890
Significance: The Reinsurance Treaty’s expiration in 1890 led to a breakdown of relations between Germany and Russia, leading to the Franco-Russian Alliance in 1894, which reshaped the balance of power in Europe.
Dual Alliance
Who: A defensive alliance formed between the German Empire, led by Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, and the Austro-Hungarian Empire, under Emperor Franz Joseph I.
What: A military alliance aimed at mutual defense against potential aggression from Russia or France. It obligated both Germany and Austria-Hungary to come to each other's aid in case of an attack by Russia, and to maintain benevolent neutrality if either nation was attacked by any other power.
Where: The alliance was formed and agreed upon in Berlin, Germany.
When: Established in 1879 as a response to the formation of the Triple Alliance between Italy, Germany, and Austria-Hungary, and concerns over Russia's expansionist ambitions in Eastern Europe.
Significance: Contributed to the complex system of alliances and rivalries in Europe that expanded the sphere of World War I into a global conflict.
Triple Alliance
Who: A defensive alliance formed between the German Empire, led by Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, under Emperor Franz Joseph I, and the Kingdom of Italy, governed by King Umberto I.
What: A military alliance aimed at mutual defense against potential aggression from France or Russia. It obligated each member to come to the aid of the others in case of an attack by any other great power, including France or Russia.
Where: The alliance was formed and agreed upon in Berlin, Germany.
When: Etablished in 1882, as a continuation and expansion of the earlier Dual Alliance between Germany and Austria-Hungary. Italy joined the alliance in order to secure protection against French territorial ambitions.
Significance: Contributed to a complex system of alliances and rivalries in Europe that expanded the sphere of World War I into a global conflict.
Congress of Berlin
Otto Van Bismark, Austria-Hungary, France, Germany, Great Britain/Ireland, Italy, Russia, and the Ottoman Empire
It replaced the Treaty of San Stefano that had been signed by Russia and Turkey after the Russo-Turkish war. It satisfied the interests of GB by denying Russia the ability to extend its naval power and by keeping the Ottomans as a European power. Also satisfied the interests of AH by allowing it to occupy Bosnia and Herzegovina (increasing its influence in the Balkans).
Summer of 1878
It took place in Berlin
It humiliated Russia by taking away many of its gains from the San Stefano treaty and laid the way for future conflict within the Balkans by not considering what the people of the Balkans wished for.
Entente Cordiale
France (Theophile Delcasse – French foreign minister and Paul Cambon – French ambassador) and the UK (Lord Lansdowne – British Foreign Secretary and Edward VII)
Granted freedom of action to GB in Egypt and France in Morocco. GB ceded Los Islands (off French Guinea) to France. Defined Nigeria’s borders in France’s favor. Agreed to French control of Upper Gambia valley. France renounced its exclusive rights to fisheries in Newfoundland. French and British zones of Siam (Thailand) were outlined, East becoming French and West being British. Arrangements for colonists of New Hebrides.
1904
Done by France and GB, but affected Africa, North America, and Asia
This created a French-Anglo alliance that angered the Germans
Triple Entente
GB, France, Russia
This union was developed from the Entente Cordiale between France and GB, the Franco-Russian alliance (1894), and the Anglo-Russian agreement (1907)
1907 through 1917
Russia, France, GB
This formed the alliance that fought against the Germans in WW1
Balkan Wars
Ottoman Empire, Balkan League - Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece, and Montenegro, Macedonia, Albania
The First Balkan War was between the Balkan League and the Ottomans. They wanted to take Macedonia away. The League was victorious, signing a peace treaty in London (1913) which had the Ottoman Empire give up all its European territory – including Macedonia and Albania. Albania would be independent while Macedonia would be split between the members of the League. The Second Balkan War began when Serbia, Greece, and Romania disagreed with Bulgaria over the division of Macedonia. The Bulgarians lost, and most of Macedonia’s land was split between Greece and Serbia with Bulgaria only receiving a small fraction of Macedonia.
October 1912 – May 1913 and June 1913 – August 1913
The Balkans
It led to conflict between Austria-Hungary and Serbia, and led to the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, leading to WW1.
Charles Darwin
An agnostic English naturalist
He voyaged upon the HMS Beagle where he studied vast arrays of flora and fauna that led him to formulating his ideas on evolution by natural selection. He spread this idea in his book On the Origin of Species.
1809 – 1882
He was an Englishman, but he gathered most of his data in the Americas.
His ideas greatly influenced modern thought on Evolution, his ideas also had a profound effect on religion as it forced people to alter their religious beliefs to accept this new science
On the Origin of Species
Authored by Charles Darwin
Put forth Darwin’s idea that all creatures emerge and develop due to the natural selection of minute hereditary differences that improve an individual’s capacity to compete, live, and reproduce
November 1859
Published in England
Introduced radical new ideas: evolution and natural selection. Changed how people would think about the creation of man.
Herbert Spencer
An English sociologist, philosopher, and author
He was an advocate of the theory of evolution that advocated for the individual over society and science over religion. He is best known for his belief in social Darwinism, the belief that natural selection applied to human societies and social classes. He also created the phrase “survival of the fittest.”
1820 – 1903
England
His idea of Social Darwinism was pervasive in the mind of many industrialists and members of the upper class to justify their high standing and wealth.
Social Darwinism
Herbert Spencer, Spencer and Walter Bagehot
The theory that human groups and races are subject to the same laws of natural selection as Charles Darwin perceived in plants and animals in nature.
Popular in the late 19th and early 20th centuries
England
This led to the belief that people in the upper classes were more worthy than those in the upper classes simply because of their wealth.
Victorian Era
Named for its coincidence with Queen Victoria’s reign, it was the time of Darwin, Dickens, Bell, etc.
A period characterized by a class-based society, growing suffrage, a growing economy, and with Great Britain’s status as an imperial and global power.
1820 – 1914
England
It was a period of great flourishing for the British empire that brought them great wealth and power, allowing them to be a major player on the global stage.
Materialism
Leucippus and Democritus → Marx and Engels (Dialectical)
The philosophy that all facts are causally dependent upon physical processes or even reducible to them. Dialectical Materialism is based off the work of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, and it was that the material world had an objective reality. The idea that only what is tangible is real
England? (I’m pretty sure that’s where the Communist Manifesto was published sooooo), but Russia was legit communist though so idk bruh take your pick, pick thy poison) ***
Influenced people that believed in Communism like Lenin, trust, I def found that online and didn’t infer that, trust… → Consumerism
Physicalism
Who: Rudolf Carnap
What: Physicalism asserts that everything that exists, including mental phenomena like thoughts, feelings, and consciousness, can ultimately be reduced to or explained by physical entities and processes. According to physicalism, mental states are nothing more than states of the physical brain and nervous system, and consciousness arises from complex neural activity.
When: The roots of physicalism can be traced back to the rise of modern science and the Enlightenment in the 17th and 18th centuries. However, it gained prominence as a distinct philosophical position in the 19th and 20th centuries, coinciding with advances in neuroscience, psychology, and the development of materialist and naturalist philosophies.
Where: Philosophers and scientists in countries such as Germany, England, and France contributed to the development and dissemination of physicalist ideas.
Why it's significant: It challenged traditional dualistic views that posit a fundamental distinction between mind and matter, advocating instead for a monistic framework in which everything can be explained by physical laws. This perspective has influenced various disciplines, including philosophy of mind, psychology, neuroscience, and cognitive science, shaping scientific research, philosophical inquiry, and debates about the nature of consciousness and human identity. Additionally, physicalism has contributed to the development of materialist and naturalist worldviews, challenging religious and metaphysical conceptions of the universe and promoting a scientific understanding of reality.
Positivism
Auguste Comte, founder of sociology and positivism
Focuses on the importance of verification of facts through observation and experimentation, the belief that societies have their own scientific principles and laws and that these "truths" can be discovered through scientific studies and understandings of society should be based on actual data and evidence (kind of condemns religion and introspection as ideology asserted only scientific knowledge valid and definitive).
Published between 1830 and 1842 (mid 19th century)
France
Emerged at a time when society was very optimistic about the role of science, began and was designed to marginalize religion and strengthen the role of science. Popular during the late 19th century. Inspired thorough questioning of beliefs. Emphasized rationality. (Kind of a continuity from Enlightenment thought)
Auguste Comte
French philosopher, mathematician, and writer. Highly mentally unstable.
Formulated the doctrine of positivism and regarded as the founder of sociology (named and established it systematically). Also regarded as the first modern philosopher of science.
Lived 1798- 1857
France (Paris)
Developed a method to study sociology. His philosophy of positivism was popular during the 19th century and greatly influenced 19th century thought, especially social thinkers like John Stuart Mill and George Eliot. His work attempted to remedy the social disorder brought about by the French Revolution. Now, many of his ideas remain fundamental to the field of sociology and some of his notable ideas include but are not limited to altruism, encyclopedic law, hierarchy of the sciences, law of three stages, and religion of humanity.
Modernism
Charles Baudelaire, Gustave Courbet, Nietzsche, Marx, Darwin, Freud
An artistic, architectural, literary, philosophical, and critical movement that was an expansive and radical break of the past, that sought new forms of expression, marked by skepticism and deconstruction.
Late 19th and early 20th century, particularly in the years following WW1
Western society and Europe (also in America's though)
Sought new alignment with the experiences and values of industrial life and fostered a period of experimentation in the arts. Encapsulated many significant events in world history as it reflected the changing world. It still influences our current day to a great extent, for example, contributing to the way people think today, with an emphasis on individuality, encouraging conversation about many social issues.
Irrationalism
Schopenhauer, Søren Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, Tolstoy,
A philosophical movement that emphasized the non-rational dimension of human life and the limitations of reason and rationality. From an irrationalist point of view, some aspects of life cannot be explained empirically and may be better understood with intuition, faith, and emotion. Influenced by skepticism and can be associated with existentialism, phenomenology, and post-modernism.
Early 19th century
Europe
Critiqued rationalism and previous Enlightenment thought which hailed reason as the only vessel of truth and discovery, instead, recognizing the limits of reason and the importance of instinct and emotion.
Friedrich Nietzsche
German philosopher (previously a philologist), essayist, and cultural critic.
Glorified the irrational through his writings on morality, language, truth, aesthetics, cultural theory, history, nihilism, power, etc. Associated with existentialism.
1844-1900
Germany/Switzerland
Challenged rationality (and previous Enlightenment thought) and championed passion/emotions. Became a highly influential modern thinker, as he tried to unveil the motives underlying Western culture (like religion), greatly impacting future generations of peoples.
Henri Bergson
One of the most famous and influential French philosophers of his time
Explored time, consciousness, and the nature of reality and critiqued mechanistic science, arguing for a more intuitive understanding of reality. Instead, emphasized subjective experience, freedom, and the limitations of rationality. Also proposed an inherent creative force in living organisms that drove evolution and existence and that time is a qualitative and subjective experience rather than discrete moments.
1859-1941
Paris, France (France)
He challenged the prevalent philosophical thoughts of his time and influenced many existentialist thinkers like Sartre and phenomenologists like Merleau-Ponty.
Sigmund Freud
Neurologist and founder of psychoanalysis
Invented and developed the technique of psychoanalysis (a clinical method for evaluating and treating conflicts in the psyche). From psychoanalysis he derived the theory of mind and human agency.
1856-1939
Vienna
Emphasized the unconscious and the limits of rational thought, which challenged previous beliefs about how humans were motivated and how their minds work. Additionally, he influenced scientific and popular conceptions of human nature. His ideas and influence also spread to other places in the world, for example the United States, and his ideas remain significant in the modern day.
Psychoanalysis
Developed by Sigmund Freud
A set of theories and therapeutic techniques dealing with the unconscious mind, together forming a basis for treating mental disorders and other conflicts of the psyche.
1890s
Vienna
Revolutionized the field of psychology, expanding medicine, and his psychoanalytic concepts greatly influenced European culture and literature, as well as the sociopolitical views of his time.
Albert Einstein
German-born theoretical physicist, one of the most important and influential scientists of all time.
Derived E = mc^2, revolutionized science with his general theory of relativity. Additionally, he won the Nobel Prize in 1921 for his explanation of the photoelectric effect.
1879-1955
Germany -> New Jersey (Princeton)
His theories made possible many modern-day inventions such as paper towels, solar power, stock market forecasts, and laser pointers. His general theory of relativity is often considered his most important contribution to society, as it redefined human understanding of time, space, and gravity- changing our daily lives whether through electronics, nuclear power, or GPS.
Max Planck
German theoretical physicist, Nobel Prize winner
Won the Nobel Prize for his discovery of energy quantum in 1918, the quantum of action is now known as Planck's constant.
1858-1947
Germany
Laid the foundation for quantum theory, which revolutionized our understanding of atomic and subatomic processes.
Quantum mechanics
Niels Bohr, Max Planck, and Einstein are some of the founding fathers.
A fundamental theory in physics that describes nature at and below the scale of atoms. Physicists call it "wave-particle duality." Quantum mechanics is also the foundation of all quantum physics.
Developed first in the 1900s (Planck)
Not only did it revolutionize physics, but it also laid the foundations for modern science, allowing the development of many technological advancements (that are present in our modern day). Quantum mechanics also fostered international collaboration and exchange across Europe (it was not a one-man endeavor). Furthermore, the conceptual and philosophical implications of quantum mechanics sparked debates and reflection across Europe, expanding European culture and intellectual thought.
Age of Imperialism
European countries (and also America and Japan, etc.) such as the United Kingdom, France, Germany, and Italy...
European industrializing nations participated in colonizing, influencing, and annexing other countries around the globe for raw materials, new markets, labor, and other things. Justified by things like white supremacy and religion. **OVERSEAS TERRITORIAL ACQUISITIONS!
It began around 1760, although it persisted well into the 19th century. (Some might even argue that imperialism still exists in our modern day!!! Although sometimes in different forms...) For this specific "wave of imperialism" - late 19th and early 20th centuries.
Europe (and across globe I guess, for example during this wave of imperialism a lot of stuff was going down in Africa... i.e. the "Scramble for Africa")
Led to increased nationalism, militarism, and alliances (plus the imperialism -> competition) that ultimately resulted in WW1. Additionally, still have ripple effects and direct consequences on our world today... for example there are still some weird power dynamics across the globe!
Balance of Trade
- Who: European empires
- What: The difference in value between the imports and exports of a country.
- When: 19th-20th century
- Where: Europe and Americas
- Why: helps prevent abrupt and disruptive changes in exchange rates and trade flows. Favorable Balance of Trade → fueled Imperialism and colonization
“The White Man’s Burden”
- Who: Rudyard Kipling
- What: The belief that European countries had a duty to control countries and organizations in other parts of the world where they had less money, education and technology than Europe.
- When: 1899
- Where: Britain
- Why: Served as a racist justification for western conquest.
Mission Civilisatrice
- Who: French colonizers
- What: Rationale for intervention or colonization, proposing to contribute to the spread of civilization, referring to Westernization of indigenous peoples.
- When: 15th – 20th century
- Where: France → affected places like Africa
- Why: Used to justify French colonialism and subjugation of other cultures and countries.
Minie ball
- Who: Claude-Etienne Minie
- What: A type of hollow-based bullet that could cause more severe wounds than any other earlier musket balls.
- When: 1846
- Where: Crimea, America
- Why: Used in the Crimean Wars and American Civil War and changed warfare by increasing the effective lethal range of the standard infantry unit.
Machine Gun
- Who: Richard Jordan Gatling
- What: An automatic gun that fires bullets in rapid succession for as long as the trigger is pressed.
- When: 1862
- Where: Europe, US
- Why: Widely used in WW1 and radically changed the tactics and strategies of militaries.
Louis Pasteur
- Who: French chemist, pharmacist, and microbiologist
- What: Discovered the principles of vaccination, microbial fermentation, and pasteurization.
- When: 1822-1895
- Where: France
- Why: Demonstrated that microorganisms are the origins of diseases and used weakened microbes to invent the earliest vaccines against cholera, anthrax, and rabies.
Joseph Lister
- Who: British surgeon, medical scientist, experimental pathologist and a pioneer of antiseptic surgery and preventive healthcare.
- What: First to apply the science of Germ Theory to surgery and seen as the father of aseptic surgery.
- When: 1827-1912
- Where: Britain
- Why: Revolutionized surgery methods and prevented infections in wounds during and after surgery.
Germ Theory
- Who: Louis Pasteur, Robert Koch
- What: The theory that microorganisms known as pathogens or "germs" can cause diseases.
- When: Began in the late 1850s
- Where: Europe in general
- Why: led introduction of new vaccines, antiseptics and government intervention in public health, and inspired development of antiseptics.
Malaria
- Who: Alphonse Laveran
- What: An intermittent and remittent fever caused by a parasite that invades red blood cells, usually transmitted by mosquitoes.
- When: Discovered protozoan parasite in 1880
- Where: Mainly spreads in tropical regions
- Why: Poses significant health threat and took lives of many infected.
Berlin Conference
- Who: Otto von Bismarck, King Leopold II
- What: A meeting by major European powers that negotiated and formalized claims to territory in Africa.
- When: 1884-1885
- Where: Berlin
- Why: Established the legal claim by Europeans that African regions could be occupied by whomever takes it and a process for Europeans to cooperate rather than fight with each other.
“Scramble for Africa”
- Who: Belgium, Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Portugal, Spain
- What: The invasion, annexation, division, and colonization of Africa by European powers during the New Imperialism era.
- When: Late 1800s
- Where: Africa
- Why: Divided Africa into European colonies and exploited its resources and caused conflicts between these colonies.
Fashoda Crisis
- Who: Britain, France
- What: The climax of a series of territorial disputes about the desires to link up colonial possessions in Africa between Great Britain and France.
- When: September 18, 1898
- Where: Fashoda, Egyptian Sudan
- Why: Led to diplomatic reconciliation and an agreement that later led to an alliance and belligerence in WW1 between Britain and France.
Vladimir Lenin
Russian Communist and revolutionary
Founder of the Russian Communist party, leader of the Bolshevik Revolution, and the first head of the USSR
1870 – 1924
Russia/USSR
He overthrew the Tzar in the Bolshevik Revolution and created the USSR, leading to massive amounts of poverty, famine, and death in Russia. An extremely oppressive government that killed its own citizens! My fav!
Sphere of Influence
Who: This concept is often associated with geopolitics and international relations, involving powerful countries exerting significant influence over weaker nations or regions.
What: It refers to a geographical area where a particular nation or entity has considerable economic, political, or cultural influence but may not necessarily have direct control.
When: The concept has been relevant throughout history, particularly during periods of colonial expansion and imperialism.
Where: Sphere of influence dynamics have been observed globally, with notable examples including European powers in Africa during the 19th and early 20th centuries, as well as Cold War rivalries between the United States and the Soviet Union.
Why: Nations seek spheres of influence for various reasons, including economic exploitation, strategic advantage, and projecting power and influence on the global stage.
Joseph Conrad
Who: A Polish-British writer who is regarded as one of the greatest novelists in the English language.
What: He is known for his works exploring themes of human nature, morality, and the consequences of colonialism. Some of his most famous works include "Heart of Darkness" and "Lord Jim."
When: 1857-1924
Where: Though born in Poland, he spent much of his life in England and traveled extensively, drawing inspiration from his experiences at sea and in various colonial settings.
Why: His are celebrated for their profound exploration of the complexities of the human condition and the impact of imperialism and colonialism on both colonizers and the colonized.
Edmund D. Morel
Who: A British journalist, shipping agent, and activist.
What: He is best known for his efforts to expose and end the atrocities committed in the Congo Free State under the rule of King Leopold II of Belgium.
When: Morel was active during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, particularly in the years surrounding the turn of the 20th century.
Where: His activism primarily focused on the Congo Free State, but his work also had broader implications for the international community's perception of colonialism and exploitation.
Why: Morel was motivated by a sense of moral outrage at the brutal treatment of the Congolese people and a commitment to justice and human rights. Founded Congo Reform Association.
Congo Reform Association
Who: The Congo Reform Association was a British organization founded by Edmund D. Morel.
What: It campaigned for the reform of the Congo Free State and sought to expose and end the human rights abuses, forced labor, and exploitation perpetrated by King Leopold II and his administration.
When: The Congo Reform Association was active during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, particularly in the early 1900s.
Where: While based in Britain, the association's activities had global implications, drawing attention to the atrocities in the Congo and galvanizing international pressure for reform.
Why: The association was driven by a desire to end the suffering of the Congolese people and hold accountable those responsible for their exploitation.
John A. Hobson
Who: John A. Hobson was a British economist and social theorist.
What: He is best known for his influential work "Imperialism: A Study," in which he critiqued the economic motives behind imperialism and colonial expansion.
When: Hobson's work was published in 1902, during the height of European imperialism.
Where: His ideas on imperialism were relevant to the European powers' activities in Africa, Asia, and other parts of the world.
Why: Hobson argued that imperialism was driven by economic factors, particularly the need for capitalist economies to find outlets for investment and surplus capital. He also highlighted the role of nationalism and the influence of special interest groups in promoting imperialism.
Pan-Germanic League
Who: The Pan-Germanic League was a nationalist organization in Germany.
What: It advocated for the unification of all German-speaking peoples into a single nation-state and promoted German interests abroad.
When: The Pan-Germanic League was active during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, particularly in the decades leading up to World War I.
Where: Its influence was primarily within Germany, but it also had connections to German communities in other parts of Europe and overseas.
Why: The league emerged in response to the fragmentation of German-speaking territories and sought to assert Germany's power and influence in Europe and beyond.
Sepoy
Who: Sepoys were Indian soldiers who served in the British Indian Army.
What: They played a significant role in maintaining British control over India during the colonial period.
When: Sepoys were employed by the British East India Company and later the British Crown from the 18th century until the Indian Rebellion of 1857.
Where: Sepoys were stationed throughout India and also served in various military campaigns outside of India, including in Africa and the Middle East.
Why: Sepoys were recruited to serve the British interests in India, often drawn from diverse ethnic and religious backgrounds. Their role was essential to the British colonial administration's maintenance of control and suppression of dissent in India.
Boxer Rebellion
Who: The Boxer Rebellion was a violent anti-foreign and anti-Christian uprising in China.
What: It was led by a secret society known as the Boxers, who sought to expel foreign influence and suppress Christianity in China.
When: The rebellion occurred between 1899 and 1901, during the late Qing dynasty.
Where: The Boxer Rebellion primarily took place in northern China, particularly around Beijing, where foreign legations were besieged.
Why: The Boxers and their supporters were motivated by a desire to rid China of what they perceived as foreign exploitation and cultural encroachment. They targeted foreigners, Chinese Christians, and Chinese converts to Christianity, viewing them as collaborators with foreign powers.
Romanticism
What: Romanticism was an artistic, literary, and intellectual movement that originated in Europe during the late 18th and early 19th centuries.
When: The Romantic movement emerged as a reaction to the rationalism and restraint of the Enlightenment and reached its peak in the first half of the 19th century.
Where: Romanticism had its roots in Europe but had a profound influence on artistic and intellectual developments worldwide.
Why: Romanticism emphasized individualism, emotion, imagination, and the sublime. It celebrated nature, the supernatural, and the exotic, and often critiqued the effects of industrialization and modernization on society.
Realism
Who: French esp like Gustave Courbet, Thomas Couture
What: Realism was a reaction against the romanticized depictions of life prevalent in art and literature during the Romantic period. Realist artists sought to depict ordinary life and the world as it was, without idealization or embellishment.
When: Realism emerged in the mid-19th century, gaining prominence in the 1850s and lasting into the late 19th century.
Where: Realism originated in France but quickly spread to other parts of Europe and the United States.
Why: Realism emerged as a response to the romanticization of life and the desire to portray the harsh realities of society, particularly the struggles of the working class. Realist artists aimed to bring attention to social issues and promote empathy and understanding.
Modern Art
Who: Modern Art encompasses a diverse range of artists, movements, and styles that emerged primarily in Europe and the United States during the late 19th and 20th centuries.
What: Modern Art refers to a departure from traditional artistic conventions, embracing experimentation, abstraction, and new techniques. It includes movements such as Cubism, Surrealism, Abstract Expressionism, and more.
When: Modern Art began to emerge in the late 19th century and continued to evolve throughout the 20th century.
Where: Modern Art originated primarily in Europe, particularly in cities like Paris and Vienna, but quickly spread to the United States and other parts of the world.
Why: Modern Art arose as artists grappled with the changing social, cultural, and technological landscape of the modern world. It reflected a desire to break away from traditional artistic norms, explore new modes of expression, and engage with the complexities of modern life. Additionally, it was influenced by various intellectual, political, and philosophical movements, including existentialism, feminism, and post-colonialism.