Pols 318 - Final Exam Review - Fall 2025

What is American Religious Exceptionalism?

The idea that the U.S. has historically been more religious than other wealthy democracies, with religion deeply shaping politics, culture, and civic life.

What does Secularization Theory argue?

As societies become wealthier and more democratic, religion should decline. The U.S. challenges this theory because it stayed highly religious much longer than expected.

Who are the 'Nones'?

People who do not identify with any religion. They have grown from about 5 percent in the 1990s to nearly 30 percent today.

What is the 'Christian founding' myth?

The belief that the U.S. was founded as a Christian nation. In reality, the founding included both religious and secular influences.

Who were the Puritans?

Protestant reformers who sought to purify Christianity and built highly religious, tightly controlled communities in early America.

What is Covenantal Theology?

The belief that people form a moral contract with God, shaping politics around shared responsibility and moral limits.

What is Total Depravity?

The belief that humans are naturally sinful and untrustworthy, which influenced ideas like separation of powers and limits on government.

What is the distinction between civil and religious interests?

Civil interests deal with law, order, and property, while religious interests deal with salvation and belief. Locke argued they should be separate.

What is non-preferential support of religion?

Government can support religion in general, but cannot favor one religion over another.

What is Civil Religion?

A set of shared national beliefs, symbols, and rituals that give American political life a religious meaning without being tied to one church.

What is the difference between priestly and prophetic civil religion?

Priestly blesses the nation and promotes unity and loyalty, while prophetic critiques the nation using higher moral standards.

What was the Second Great Awakening?

A major religious revival that expanded Baptist and Methodist churches and fueled reform movements like abolition and temperance.

What is a Jeremiad?

A sermon or speech that warns society it has sinned and must repent to avoid punishment.

Why is the Black Church politically important?

It served as a religious, political, and community center during slavery, segregation, and the Civil Rights Movement.

What is Nativism?

Hostility toward immigrants and minority religious groups, especially Catholics, Jews, and later Muslims.

What is the Social Gospel?

A Christian movement arguing that faith requires fighting poverty, injustice, and inequality, not just saving souls.

What are the Culture Wars?

Political conflicts over abortion, gender, sexuality, family, and education rooted in religious and moral disagreement.

What is the New Christian Right?

A conservative religious political movement that emerged in the 1970s focused on abortion, school prayer, and traditional family values.

What is the God Gap?

The voting divide between religious voters (more Republican) and non-religious voters (more Democratic).

What is the decline of the mainline?

The shrinking influence of mainline Protestant denominations like Methodists and Presbyterians.

How does Winthrop connect religion and politics in 'A Modell of Christian Charity'?

Winthrop imagines the colony as a Christian community under a covenant with God, where people freely give up some autonomy for the greater good.

How does Winthrop's sermon relate to American exceptionalism today?

The 'city upon a hill' language feeds the idea that the United States has a special mission in history.

What kind of religious toleration did the Maryland Toleration Act create?

It protected Christians from being harassed for their faith but restricted freedom to Christians only.

What is Penn's main argument about what makes government good?

Penn argues that any form of government can be free as long as laws rule and the people are parties to those laws.

How does Penn support religious freedom, and how is it still limited?

Penn defends liberty of conscience but his idea of freedom stays within a European model of establishment.

What are Feldman's two main camps on religion in the founding?

Protosecularists like Madison and Jefferson, and proevangelicals like Leland and Backus, who agreed on the importance of liberty of conscience.

Why does Madison call religious liberty an inalienable right?

Madison argues that duty to the Creator comes before duty to civil society, so government has no authority over religious belief.

How does Madison say establishment affects religion itself?

He claims that when church and state are allied, religion becomes corrupt and believers become superstitious.

What are the main principles of Jefferson's Statute for Religious Freedom?

Jefferson argues that God created the mind free, coercion in religion leads to hypocrisy, and civil rights must never depend on religious opinions.

How does Jefferson's view of church and state differ from earlier colonial models like Winthrop and Penn?

Winthrop and Penn tie political life to a shared Christian covenant and moral community, while Jefferson emphasizes individual rights and separation, arguing that government should not coerce belief.

What double role does Tocqueville see religion playing in democracy?

Tocqueville believes religion supports democracy by encouraging morality and self-restraint, but warns it can also be used by demagogues to inflame passions and undermine democratic norms.

How does Bellah define civil religion, and what are its priestly and prophetic roles?

Bellah defines civil religion as a public faith with sacred texts and rituals that give political life moral meaning. Its priestly role is to bless the nation and create unity, while its prophetic role judges the nation against higher principles.

What is Beecher afraid of, and how does he link religion to American identity?

Beecher fears that Catholic immigration will undermine Protestant liberty and equates Protestantism with American freedom, portraying Catholicism as a threat to self-government.

How does Beecher's rhetoric around Catholic immigrants resemble later religious nativism?

Beecher describes immigrants as uneducated and loyal to foreign powers, echoing later fears about Catholic, Jewish, and Muslim newcomers and anticipating claims about their inability to assimilate.

How does Kennedy respond to fears about a Catholic president?

Kennedy insists on absolute separation of church and state, stating no priest will dictate his governance and pledging to act for all Americans.

What is Morone's main argument about slavery and religion?

Morone argues that slavery became framed as America's great national sin, turning politics into a religious battle where both sides used the Bible to defend their views.

How did Southern ministers defend slavery religiously?

They argued slavery was sanctioned by Scripture and framed it as part of God's natural order, calling abolitionists heretics.

How did abolitionists use religion against slavery?

They appealed to a higher moral law, claiming true Christianity demanded liberation and that slavery was a national sin.

How does Howe use religion to frame the Civil War?

She sanctifies war by portraying Union violence as God's judgment, turning military action into divine punishment for slavery.

How does Lincoln interpret the Civil War religiously?

Lincoln suggests the war is God's punishment on the nation for slavery and calls for humility and reconciliation after victory.

How do Lincoln and Howe differ in their religious framing of the war?

Howe presents the war as a holy crusade, while Lincoln views it as a tragic judgment requiring humility and healing.

What is Douglass's critique of pro-slavery Christianity?

Douglass argues that religious slaveholders are the worst, distinguishing between true Christianity, which liberates, and false Christianity, which enslaves.

Why does Douglass call the Constitution slaveholding?

He argues it protects slavery through representation and enforcement, making the government complicit in moral injustice.

How does Armstrong defend slavery as a religious institution?

Armstrong argues slavery itself is not a sin, only its abuses are, and that the Church should create 'good masters and good slaves'.

How do Armstrong and Douglass fundamentally disagree?

Armstrong sees Christianity as preserving social order through slavery, while Douglass sees true Christianity as opposing slavery.

What is Du Bois's main argument about the Black Church?

Du Bois argues that the Black church became the central institution for African Americans under oppression.

What are the three pillars of Black religious life according to Du Bois?

The Preacher as leader, The Music (spirituals), The Frenzy (emotional worship).

How did Christianity change under slavery according to Du Bois?

Early religion supported revolt, but later it promoted submission and endurance, which helped slaves survive but weakened resistance.

How does Du Bois describe religion after emancipation?

Religion becomes a force for earthly freedom and political activism, fueling abolition and civil rights movements.

How does King define just vs. unjust laws?

A just law uplifts human personality and aligns with God's law, while an unjust law degrades human personality.

Why does King criticize the white moderate?

He argues they prioritize order over justice, preferring to wait rather than act against injustice.

How does King's use of Christianity differ from Armstrong's?

Armstrong uses Christianity to defend hierarchy, while King uses it to demand justice and equality.

How does the Civil War reshape American civil religion?

It adds themes of sacrifice, death, and martyrdom, with Lincoln becoming a central prophetic figure.

How does religion function as both a tool of oppression and liberation?

Religion justified slavery but also powered abolition, emancipation, and civil rights.

What does Step 2 overall teach about religion and democracy?

It highlights the complex relationship where religion can both support and undermine democratic principles.

What are the "Three B's" used to measure religion?

Belief, Behavior, Belonging

What does "decline of the mainline" mean politically?

Mainline Protestant denominations like Methodists and Presbyterians are shrinking, which reduces their political influence and shifts power toward evangelicals and secular voters.

Who are the "Nones," and why do they matter politically?

People who claim no religious affiliation. They are the fastest growing religious group and vote overwhelmingly Democratic, reshaping elections.

What is the "secular surge"?

The rapid rise of nonreligious Americans, especially among younger generations, which increases polarization between religious and secular voters.

How do white evangelicals typically vote, and why?

They vote heavily Republican due to positions on abortion, family values, gender, religious liberty, and cultural identity.

Why are Catholics considered a "swing" religious group?

Catholics are divided between social justice teachings and conservative moral teachings, making them politically split and electorally influential.

How do Latino evangelicals differ politically from white evangelicals?

They often hold conservative moral views but may support immigration reform and economic assistance, creating a mixed voting pattern.

How do Black Protestants vote, and why?

They vote overwhelmingly Democratic due to historical ties to civil rights, racial justice, and community advocacy through the Black Church.

How do Jewish Americans typically vote?

They vote strongly Democratic, shaped by minority status, historical experiences of persecution, and support for civil liberties.

How has Muslim voting behavior changed since 2001?

Muslim voters became more Democratic after 9/11 due to surveillance, discrimination, and policies like the Muslim Ban.

How do Latter day Saints typically vote?

They vote strongly Republican but showed discomfort with Trump due to moral character concerns.

What does it mean to "frame" an election in religious terms?

It means using religious language, identity, or moral narratives to shape how voters interpret political issues.

What does "shock and two aftershocks" describe?

Shock: The rise of the religious right; Aftershock 1: Cultural backlash and polarization; Aftershock 2: Growth of the Nones and secular voters.

Why did evangelicals support Trump despite moral concerns?

Because of policy alignment on abortion, judges, religious liberty, and cultural conflict, showing that political goals outweighed personal morality.

What is partisan sorting in religion?

When religious identity and political party identity become increasingly aligned, increasing polarization.

What does Robert Jones mean by the "decline of White Christian America"?

The loss of demographic and cultural dominance of white Christians, which fuels political anxiety and backlash.

How do antisemitism and Islamophobia affect political behavior?

They shape public opinion, immigration attitudes, security policy, and minority political mobilization.

What do PRRI and Pew surveys show about religion and elections?

They show sharp divisions by religious identity in voting, views of democracy, immigration, race, and gender.

What is the main lesson of Religion and Elections?

Religion still powerfully structures U.S. voting behavior, but growing secularism and demographic change are reshaping political coalitions and intensifying polarization.

What does the Establishment Clause say and do?

It bars the government from establishing an official religion or favoring one religion over others.

What does the Free Exercise Clause protect?

It protects the right to practice religion without government interference, unless the law is neutral and generally applicable.

What is separationism?

The view that church and state should be strictly separated, often using Jefferson's "wall of separation" language.

What is accommodationism?

The view that government may accommodate and support religion as long as it does not coerce belief or favor one faith.

What is the Lemon Test?

A three part test from Lemon v. Kurtzman (1971): Law must have a secular purpose; its primary effect cannot advance or inhibit religion; it must avoid excessive entanglement between church and state.

What is the Historical Practices and Understandings Test?

A newer approach that looks at what the Founders actually allowed historically instead of strict separation.

What did Engel v. Vitale rule?

The Court ruled school sponsored prayer is unconstitutional, even if students are not forced to participate.

What did Smith decide about religious exemptions?

The Court ruled that neutral, generally applicable laws may burden religion without violating the Constitution, limiting Free Exercise protections.

Why was RFRA passed?

Congress passed RFRA to restore stronger protection for religious exercise after Smith weakened it.

What did the Court rule in Hobby Lobby?

The Court ruled that closely held corporations can claim religious exemptions under RFRA from federal mandates like contraception coverage.

What was the key issue in Masterpiece Cakeshop?

Whether a business owner could refuse service for a same sex wedding based on religious belief.

Why did the Court rule for the baker in Masterpiece Cakeshop?

Not because denying service was legal in general, but because the Colorado Civil Rights Commission showed hostility toward religion, violating neutrality.

What did COVID church cases show about Free Exercise?

The Court became more protective of religious gatherings, limiting state power even during public health emergencies.

What was the Muslim Ban?

A set of executive orders restricting travel from Muslim majority countries, framed as national security policy.

What did the Supreme Court rule in Trump v. Hawaii?

The Court upheld the Muslim Ban, accepting the government's national security justification despite evidence of religious animus.

What is the difference between religious motive and religious means?

Religious motive: Why a policy is pursued; Religious means: How religion is used to achieve it. Both matter for Establishment Clause analysis.

What major trend is visible in recent religion cases?

The Court is moving away from strict separation and toward greater accommodation and protection for religious actors.

What is the main conflict in modern religious liberty law?

The tension between protecting religious freedom and ensuring that government does not favor one religion over another.

What is a religious exemption?

A legal exception allowing religious individuals or institutions to avoid certain laws that conflict with belief.

What is the overall lesson of Religion and Constitutional Law?

The Supreme Court is increasingly expanding religious accommodation, even when it conflicts with equality and non-discrimination.

What is religious framing in public policy?

The use of religious language, values, or moral claims to shape how people understand political issues and motivate action.

What is political opportunity?

The idea that religious movements gain influence when institutions, leaders, and public opinion create openings for action.

What are 'means of collective action'?

The tools groups use to organize and mobilize, such as churches, networks, social media, protests, and voting blocs.

What is Berry's core religious argument about the economy and environment?

Berry argues that modern society has made a Faustian bargain, trading moral responsibility and environmental care for unlimited economic growth, which violates religious stewardship.

What do Bean and Teles argue about religion and climate policy?

They argue religious communities can reframe climate change as a moral and spiritual duty, not just a scientific or partisan issue.

What does the Cornwall Alliance argue about the environment?

It argues that human flourishing and free markets should take priority and that environmental regulation often harms the poor.