PSYCH UNIT 5

belief perseverance

tendency to stick to our initial beliefs even when evidence contradicts them

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

state-dependent memory

the phenomenon through which memory retrieval is most efficient when an individual is in the same state of consciousness as they were when the memory was formed

source amnesia

faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined

deep processing

encoding semantically (associating pictures with words); tends to yield the best retention

shallow processing

encoding on a basic level (repeating a word to remember it)

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

representative heuristic

judging something based on how it matches your prototype.

retroactive interference

happens when new information interferes with trying to remember old information.

proactive interference

interference effect of previously learned materials on the acquisition and retrieval of newer materials.

prospective memory

remembering to do something in the future

Chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

availability heuristic

the ability to easily recall immediate examples from the mind about something.

Heuristic

a general rule based on our experience that we use to judge and make decisions.

Algorithm

A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.

flashbulb memory

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

episodic memory

the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place

procedural memory

the type of memory we use to do everyday tasks.

phoneme

in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit

Modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

mnemonics

memory aids

language acquisition

the process of learning language

implicit memory

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection (we learn them without realizing/unconscious).

functional fixedness

the tendency to perceive an item only in terms of its most common use

Fixation

the inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an obstacle to problem solving

encoding failure

the brain's occasional failure to create a memory link

distributed practice

a strategy of learning that makes use of smaller increments of study and practice over a longer period of time

divergent thinking

expands the number of possible problem solutions (creative thinking that diverges in different directions)

convergent thinking

looks at obtaining one solution to a problem

Imagery

a set of mental pictures that serves as an aid to effortful processing.

intelligence quotient (IQ)

defined originally as the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) multiplied by 100 [thus, IQ = (ma/ca) x 100]. On contemporary intelligence tests, the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100.

linguistic determinism

Whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think

language

our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning

intuition

the ability to understand something immediately, without the need for conscious reasoning.

intrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake

intellectual disability

a condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an intelligence score of 70 or below and difficulty in adapting to the demands of life (originally called mental retardation)

grit

passion and perseverance in the pursuit of long-term goals

grammar

in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others

Heritability

the ability of a trait to be passed down from one generation to the next

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

gifted

the ability or potential to have high cognitive performance.

g factor (general intelligence)

according to Spearman and others, underlies all mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test

Framing

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.

factor analysis

a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person's total score.

expertise

specialized knowledge (in a particular field); expert skill

explicit memory

memories that are consciously recalled

encoding specificity principle

shows that memories are linked to the context in which they are created.

Encoding

the processing of information into the memory system

emotional intelligence

the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions

elaborative rehearsal

the linking of new information to material that is already known

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

dual coding theory

A theory that memory is improved when items can be represented by both verbal and visual memory codes

Dementia

The loss of cognitive function that interferes with routine personal, social, and occupational activities

deja vu

a false sense when you feel that you experienced a situation before.

declarative memory

type of long-term memory of facts and events we personally experience

decay theory

theory of memory that refers to the forgetting that happens in our short-term memory.

context dependent memory

The theory that information learned in a particular situation or place is better remembered when in that same situation or place.

predictive validity

a type of prediction to determine how well one may do in the future.

content validity

the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest

concept

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

cohort

A group of people unified by a specific common characteristic, such as age, and subsequently treated as a statistical unit.

cognition

the process of thinking or mentally processing info such as a concept, language, or image.

cognitive maps

a visual representation of a person's mental model for a given process/concept.

belief perspective

where you are standing & how you look at something.

Wernicke's area

controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe

Broca's area

Controls speech production/language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one's past

autobiographical memory

the memory for events and facts related to one's personal life story

anterograde amnesia

inability to form new memories

insight

a sudden realization of a problem's solution

achievment test

a test designed to assess what a person has learned

aptitude test

a test designed to predict a person's future performance

maintenance rehearsal

repeating stimuli in their original form to retain them in short-term memory

Missattribution

mistakenly attributing a behavior to the wrong source

misinformation effect

when misleading information has corrupted one's memory of an event

memory

the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information

memory consolidation

the neural storage of a long-term memory

mood congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

parallel processing

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions.

Morpheme

in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix)

practical intelligence

the ability to apply life experiences to problem-solving tasks.

predictive validity

The success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior.

Priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response

prototype

a mental image or best example of a category

recall

A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

recognition

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

relearning

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time

reconsolidation

a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again

Repression

Defense mechanism by which anxiety-provoking thoughts and feelings are forced to the unconscious.

Retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

savant syndrome

a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing

Schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

semantic memory

a network of associated facts and concepts that make up our general knowledge of the world

sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice