Midterm Review (Units 0-3)

Accommodation (vision)

the crucial mental process of changing or creating new mental frameworks (schemas) to fit new information that doesn't match existing ones

Acetylcholine (Neurotransmitter)

Enables muscle action and memory; undersupply linked to alzeimers’s, over supply linked spasms and paralysis (black widow venom)

Afferent Nerves

Sensory Neurons

Achievement Test

What you learned . Example: AP exams

action potential

a brief, rapid electrical impulse that travels down a neuron's axon, acting as the fundamental signal for nerve communication, triggered when a stimulus reaches a certain threshold

acquistion

the initial stage of learning where a new response is first learned and established through the strengthening of an association between a neutral stimulus and a stimulus that elicits a response

activation synthesis theory

a theory suggesting that dreams result from the brain's attempt to make sense of random neural activity during REM sleep, leading to the synthesis of a narrative or story.

agonist

a substance that enhances or mimics the action of a neurotransmitter at a receptor site, often resulting in increased activity in the nervous system

alcohol

a central nervous system depressant that can impair cognitive and motor functions

algorithm

a step-by-step procedure for solving a problem or achieving a goal, commonly used in computing and mathematics often involving a clear set of rules or instructions

antagonist

a substance or drug that blocks neurotransmitter receptors, reducing or inhibiting the neurotransmitter's normal effects

anterograde amnesia

the inability to form new long-term memories

aptitude test

predict how you will do in the future (SAT, ACT)

axon

the long, slender projection of a nerve cell (neuron) that transmits electrical impulses (action potentials) away from the neuron's cell body (soma) to other neurons, muscles, or glands, acting as the neuron's communication cable to send signals to distant targets

behaviorism

thought in psychology that argues all behavior is learned through interactions with the environment via conditioning

blind spot

no light-sensitive cells so this part of your retina can't see

bottom-up processing

a perceptual approach where perception begins with raw sensory data (like lines, colors, sounds) and builds up to a complete understanding, driven by the stimulus itself rather than prior knowledge, essentially letting the data create the picture

brocas area

a region in the left frontal lobe crucial for speech production, grammar, and articulation, coordinates motor planning for speech

case study

an in-depth, detailed investigation of a single individual, group, event, or organization, using multiple data sources (like interviews, observations, records) to understand a unique phenomenon within its real-life context

cerebellum

a crucial mini brain structure, known for coordinating voluntary movement, balance, and posture, but increasingly recognized for vital roles in cognitive functions like attention, language, emotional regulation, and motor learning

circadian rhythm

the body's natural, 24-hour cycle of physical, mental, and behavioral changes, primarily regulated by the brain's internal clock

cocaine

powerfully addictive, central nervous system stimulant drug that significantly alters brain function, primarily by blocking the reuptake of the neurotransmitter dopamine, leading to intense euphoria and a high potential for abuse

cochlea

fluid-filled part of the inner ear that acts as the body's primary microphone, converting physical sound vibrations (from the middle ear) into electrical nerve signals that the brain interprets as sound

cognitive map

a mental representation of one's physical environment, allowing for navigation and understanding spatial relationships without direct sensory input

conditioned response

a learned, automatic reaction to a previously neutral stimulus (now a Conditioned Stimulus, CS) that has been repeatedly paired with an Unconditioned Stimulus (US) that naturally triggers a response (Unconditioned Response, UR)

conditioned stimlulus

a neutral signal that, after being repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus (US, which naturally triggers a response), eventually triggers the same response on its own, becoming a learned trigger for a conditioned response (CR)

cones

specialized photoreceptor cells in the retina responsible for detailed, color, and daylight vision

confirmation bias

where individuals tend to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information in a way that confirms their preexisting beliefs or hypotheses (I knew it all along)

PO/RN

pro = old, retro = new

confounding variables

an extraneous factor that influences both the independent and dependent variables in a study

convergent thinking

the cognitive process of narrowing down multiple possibilities to find the single, most logical, or correct answer to a problem, relying on established rules, logic, and analysis

correlational

a method used to examine the relationship between two or more variables without manipulating them. CORRELATION DOES NOT EQUAL CAUSATION

CT scan

X-rays of the head generate images that may locate brain damage

EEG

Electrodes placed on the scalp measure electrical activity in neurons EX: Symptoms of depression and anxiety correlate with increased activity in the right frontal lobe, a brain area associated with behavioral withdrawal and negative emotion 

MRI

People sit or lie down in a chamber that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to provide a map of brain structure.

PET scan

Tracks where a temporarily radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain of the person given it performs a given task

Marijuana (THC)

Mild hallucinogen, Enhanced sensation, relief of pain, distortion of time, relaxation, Impaired learning and memory, increased risk of psychological disorders

Ghrelin

Hormone; Stomach, Feelings of hunger

Leptin (Hormone)

feelings of satiety, fat cells

Melatonin (Hormone)

Pineal gland ; Regulate the sleep/wake cycle

Oxytocin (hormone)

Pituitary Gland; Facilitate lactation and improve relationships  →  bonding hormone

dopamine (Neurotransmitter)

Influences voluntary movement, learning, attention, and emotion (reward pathway); Undersupply linked to Parkinson’s, Oversupply linked to schizophrenia

serotonin (neurotransmitter)

Affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal; Undersupply linked to depression

Oversupply linked to seizures

Norepinephrine/ Epinephrine (Neurotransmitter)

Helps control alertness and arousal → affects the blood vessels ;Undersupply linked to depression & ADHD

Oversupply linked to anxiety/mania

GABA (Neurotransmitter)

Inhibitory neurotransmitter; natural tranquilizer involved in calming you down; Undersupply linked to seizures, tremors, and insomnia

Glutamate (neurotransmitter)

Excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory and learning

Endorphins (neurotransmitter)

Influence the perception of pain and pleasure → pain relief; Undersupply linked to depression

Oversupply can make people anxious/wired

Substance P (neurotransmitter)

Pain transmission; Undersupply linked with pain insensitivity

Oversupply linked to Hyperalgesia (chronic pain), PTSD, IBD, and arthritis 

Parasympathetic nervous system

rest and digest; Automatically slows the body down after a stressful event

Sympathetic nervous system

fight or flight response; Automatically accelerates heart rate, breathing, dilates pupils, slows down digestion

Dendrites

receives signals from other neurons

Glial cells (glia)

are support cells for the nervous system, providing extra protection and nourishment to neurons

Efferent Nerves

motor neurons

Reflex Arc

automatic responses to stimuli; sensory neurons take info up through spine to the brain → Some reactions occur when sensory neurons reach just the spinal cord.

Resting potential.

When not firing (or at rest), a neuron has a slightly negative charge

refractory period

Before a neuron can fire again, the ions need to return to their original position, or repolarized. This brief pause between firings

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers

synapse

a small space between the neurons

reuptake

process which neurotransmitters are released by the neurons and travel back across the synapse to be reabsorbed by the axon terminals

Multiple Sclerosis

chronic autoimmune disease in which the immune system mistakenly attacks the myelin sheath

Myasthenia Gravis

chronic autoimmune neuromuscular disorder characterized by weakness and rapid fatigue of the voluntary muscles caused by a breakdown in the normal communication between nerves and muscles

Tolerance

the need to take increasing amounts of a psychoactive substance in order to experience the same effects from the initial use

Withdrawal

extreme physical and/or psychological responses to discontinuation of a psychoactive substance

Hallucinogens

distort perception

• Cause false sensory hallucinations, impair memory, feelings of relaxation and/or euphoria

• Ex. marijuana, mushrooms, LSD, ecstasy/MDMA (also a stimulant)

Depressants

Reduce neural activity

• Increase relaxation, decrease mood and arousal

• Slow down (depress) bodily processes

• Ex. alcohol, barbiturates, 

Opiates 

• Decrease feelings of pain

• Ex. heroin, morphine

stimulants

excite neural activity

• Increase energy, decrease appetite, brief feelings of euphoria

• Speed up (stimulate) bodily processes

• Ex. caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, amphetamines (meth)

reticular formation

 a nerve network that travels through the brainstem into the thalamus and plays an important role in controlling arousal

medulla

the base of the brainstem that controls breathing and heartbeat

pons

Connects hindbrain, midbrain, forebrain together; involved in respiration and REM sleep, also serves as a communications and coordination center between the two hemispheres of the brain

thalamus

• Sensory “switchboard”

• Located at the top of the brainstem

• Directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

  • Receives sensory information from all senses except smell

 limbic system

neural system located below the cerebral hemispheres that is associated with emotions and drives

Amygdala

• responsible for survival emotions of fear and aggression

Hippocampus

responsible for processing and storing explicit memories of facts and events

Hypothalamus

• below the thalamus; direct several maintenance behaviors, like eating, drinking, and maintaining optimal body temperature, helps regulate the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward

cerebral cortex

intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres that functions as the body’s ultimate control and information-processing center

functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

Measures blood flow to brain regions by comparing continuous MRI scans (pinpoints)

frontal lobe

Behind your forehead, largest lobe; Ability to recognize future consequences

• Making judgements 

• Planning & decision making

• Abstract thought

• Personality

brocas aphasia

problems with fluency in speech production due to damage

parietal lobe

• Top of the head

• Receives sensory input for touch sensations (pain, pressure, temperature) and body position

temporal lobe

• Above the ears

• Includes auditory areas, each receiving input from the opposite ear

• Assists with memory

Wernicke’s Area

responsible for language comprehension

Wernicke’s aphasia

• problems with meaning of speech due to damage; the syntax and grammar jumbled

occipital lobe

• ack of the head, above the cerebellum 

  • This is why a hit to the back of your head could make you “see stars” or temporarily blur your vision

• Receives information from the visual fields of opposite eyes for visual processing (see contralateral control)

REM rebound

• If deprived of REM sleep, a person will spend more time in REM the next time they go to sleep. 

NREM-1

• light sleep, easily awoken → alpha waves

NREM-2

• fully asleep → theta waves with sleep spindles (random short bursts of activity) & k-complexes (random tall bursts of activity)

• sleep spindles

(random short bursts of activity)

k complexes

random tall bursts of activity

NREM-3

deep sleep → delta waves

narcolepsy

a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks; sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep

absolute threshold

minimum amount of stimulus energy needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time

difference threshold

note the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time

webers law

to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant percentage rather than a constant amount

sleep apnea

• a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings 

sensory adaptation

diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation or exposure

cornea

the eye’s clear, protective layer

pupil

adjustable opening of the eye allowing light to pass through

iris

colored ring of muscle tissue

lens

ransparent structure which changes shape to focus images