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Polymers

Polymers

large molecules composed of smaller subunits; also called macromolecules

Monomers

the smaller subunits of which polymers (macromolecules) are made

Dehydration Reactions

the removal of water by enzymes; monomers are joined by these reactions.

Hydrolysis Reactions

the addition of water by enzymes; polymers are broken apart by these reactions.

Families of Macromolecules

the four major groups of macromolecules in living systems.

Carbohydrates:

a family of macromolecules that are all composed of simple sugar monomers.

Water-soluble

term referring to any substance that will dissolve in water.

Monosaccharides

the simplest of sugars; they are composed of only one sugar monomer.

Disaccharides

simple sugars containing 2 monosaccharides bonded together.

Polysaccharides

complex carbohydrates containing 3 or more monosaccharides bonded together.

Lipids

a diverse family of macromolecules, all composed of glycerol and fatty acid molecules.

Fats and Oils

group of lipids composed of triglyceride monomers.

Triglycerides

a single glycerol molecule to which 3 fatty acids are attached.

Oils

general term for “liquid fats”.

Saturated Fats

animal fats that contain no C-C double bonds and the maximum number of H atoms

Unsaturated Fats

plant oils that contain one C-C double bond and less than the maximum number of H atoms

Polyunsaturated Fats

unsaturated fats that have 2 or more C-C double bonds.

Phospholipids

group of lipids composed of diglyceride monomers

Diglycerides

a single glycerol molecule to which 2 fatty acids and an R-group are attached.

“Phosphate Head”

term for the phosphate group found in all phospholipids.

Sterols

group of lipids whose molecules are built around a 4-ring structure

Proteins

family of macromolecules that are all composed of amino acid monomers.

Peptide Bonds

the special covalent bonds that link amino acids together.

Polypeptides

a liner chain of covalently linked amino acids.

Globular Proteins

proteins that spontaneously fold into very compact “globs”

Fibrous Proteins

proteins that remain basically linear or folded into a “zig-zag” shape

Enzymes

very important globular proteins that act as biological catalysts in living systems

Catalysts

molecules that speed up chemical reactions.

Primary Structure

the sequence of amino acids in a protein.

N-terminal

the beginning of any polypeptide; contains a free amino group.

C-terminal

the end of any polypeptide; contains a free carboxyl group.

Secondary Structure

a folding or contorting of the primary structure; can be an -helix or -sheet.

Tertiary Structure

an irregular folding or contorting of the secondary structure or a protein.

Quaternary Structure

the highest and most advanced level of structure in a protein; it is an aggregation and joining of 2 or more polypeptides into one functional protein.

Conjugated Proteins

proteins that also non-protein side-groups attached to them

Nucleic Acids

family of macromolecules all composed of nucleotide monomers; DNA and RNA only

Nucleotides

nucleic acid monomers consisting of a phosphate group, pentose (5-C) sugar, and a nitrogenous base.

Pyrimidine bases

nitrogenous bases consisting of a single 6-membered ring of C and N atoms; C, T, and U.

Purine bases

nitrogenous bases consisting of a 6-membered ring fused to a 5-membered ring of C and N atoms; A and G.

Double Helix

the normal state of DNA; it is 2 strands of nucleotides bonded together.

Genes

functionally active portions of a DNA molecule; genes code for specific proteins.

Biology

the study of life and all of its processes.

Characteristics of Life

six major characteristics that are common to all life and serve to define life; chemical reactions, water, C, and other elements all contribute to the development of these traits.

Fundamental Biological Theories

the six major underlying theories that form the foundation of modern biology.

Matter

anything that has mass and takes up space.

Chemical Element (or element)

a substance that cannot be separated into simpler substances; includes all those in the periodic table of elements.

Atom

the smallest individual units of matter; elements are made up of indivisible atoms

Subatomic particles

the individual parts of an atom; protons and neutrons in the nucleus and electrons in the electron cloud.

Protons

positively charged particles in an atom's nucleus.

Atomic Number

the number of protons in an element.

Neutrons

uncharged or neutral particles in an atom's nucleus

Isotopes

variable forms of atoms that contain different numbers of neutrons.

Atomic Mass

the combined mass of an atom's protons and neutrons.

Electrons

negatively charged particles that circle the nucleus of an atom in the electron cloud.

Ions

atoms that have a net positive (missing an electron) or negative (having an extra electron) charge to them.

. Molecules

two or more atoms that are somehow chemically combined together.

Compound

a molecule made up of two or more different elements in specific proportions.

Electronegativity

the relative strength with which an element is able to attract electrons; also refers to the degree to which a charged element strives to return to a stable, uncharged state—although highly electronegative atoms will often attract electrons even if it means they are no longer in a stable, uncharged state.

Chemical Bonding

term for all of the activities charged atoms undergo in order to return to a stable, uncharged state

Ionic Bonds

bonds in which one atom in a molecule draws electrons completely away from another atom.

Covalent Bonds

bonds in which two atoms in a molecule share one or more electrons.

Hydrogen Bonds

a relatively weak and simple electrical attraction between a weakly electronegative H of one molecule and a highly electronegative atom (usually O or N) in another molecule.

Polar Molecules

molecule in which the shared electrons spend more time orbiting the more electronegative atom; one end of such a molecule is positively charged and the other end is negatively charged.

Nonpolar Molecules

molecule in which the shared electrons orbit all parts of the molecule and both atoms equally; they have no net charge to them and are neutral overall.

Reactants

the starting substances in any chemical reaction.

Products

the new substances into which the reactants are converted in chemical reactions.

Exothermic reactions

chemical reactions that give off heat in the process.

Organic Molecules

molecules that always contain C and H in them

Inorganic Molecules

molecules that do not contain C in them.

.Hydrocarbons

bonds between H and C atoms; the most common in nature.

Functional Groups

common, specific bonding patterns of one molecule to another; most groups contain C, but some do not.

Macromolecules

very large molecules composed of many smaller subunits.

Monomers

the smaller subunits of which macromolecules are composed.

Cohesion

one of the major properties of water; attraction between similar substances; the tendency for molecules of a substance to chemically bond to other molecules of the same substance; polar molecules exhibit cohesion, nonpolar molecules do not.

Surface Tension

pertaining to water--it refers to the tough, elastic film of H-bonded water molecules that make up the surface of any body of water.

Adhesion

one of the major properties of water; attraction between two dissimilar substances; the tendency for molecules of a substance to chemically bond to other molecules of a similar nature – usually other polar molecules; polar molecules exhibit adhesion, nonpolar molecules do not

Hydrophilic ("water loving")

refers to molecules that are attracted to and can bind with water; polar molecules are hydrophilic

Hydrophobic ("water fearing")

molecules that are repelled by water and cannot bind with it; nonpolar molecules are hydrophobic.

Capillarity

one of the major properties of water; water will naturally move up narrow, unbroken tubes.

Capillary tubes

term used to refer to narrow, unbroken tubes

Capillary action

the actual movement of water up narrow, unbroken tubes.

Imbibition

one of the major properties of water; water will naturally move into porous substances.

Specific Heat

term that refers to the amount of energy it requires to raise the temperature of a substance 1 C; water has a very high specific heat.

Solvent

any substance that can dissolve another substance

Solute

any substance that is dissolved in solvent.

Equilibrium

term that refers to the condition in which the amount of hydrogen ions (H+) in a substance equals the amount of hydroxide ions (OH-) in the same substance.

Acids

solutions in which the amount of hydrogen ions (H+) outnumbers the amount of hydroxide ions (OH-).

Bases (alkalines)

solutions in which the amount of hydroxide (OH-) ions outnumbers the amount of hydrogen ions (H+).

pH scale

scale used to measure the relative strength or weakness of an acid or base; it ranges from 0 to 14, with 7 being neutral.

Buffers

chemical substances that neutralize acids or bases in order to help maintain constant pH or neutral conditions.