psych vocab

hindsight bias

hindsight bias

the tendency, upon learning an outcome of an event, to overestimate one’s ability to have foreseen the outcome.

confirmation bias

people's tendency to process information by looking for, or interpreting, information that is consistent with their existing beliefs.

overconfidence

an individual’s subjective confidence in their judgments, abilities, or predictions exceeds their actual accuracy or ability.

peer reviewers

experts in a specific field who evaluate the quality, validity, and significance of academic or professional work before it is published or accepted

critical thinking

the disciplined process of actively and skillfully analyzing, evaluating, and synthesizing information to guide beliefs and actions

theory

a systematic and coherent set of concepts, principles, and propositions that aims to explain and predict phenomena within a particular field

hypothesis

a tentative and testable statement or prediction about the relationship between two or more variables

falsifiable

a characteristic of a statement, hypothesis, or theory that allows it to be proven false through evidence or observation

operational definition

a clear, precise, and measurable specification of how a concept or variable is defined and assessed in a particular study or experiment

replication

the process of repeating a scientific study or experiment to verify its results and confirm its reliability

case study

an in-depth, detailed examination of a single subject, group, event, or phenomenon within its real-life context

meta analysis

a statistical technique used to combine and synthesize results from multiple independent studies on the same topic to arrive at a more precise and generalizable conclusion

naturalistic observation

a research method in which an observer studies subjects in their natural environment without intervening or manipulating the setting

survey

a research method used to collect data and gather information from a group of people, typically through structured questionnaires or interviews

social desirability bias

a type of response bias where participants in a survey or study provide answers they believe are more socially acceptable or favorable, rather than their true thoughts, feelings, or behaviors

self report bias

a distortion in the accuracy of data when individuals provide information about themselves, often due to the subjective nature of self-assessment

experimenter bias

a type of bias that occurs when a researcher's expectations, beliefs, or attitudes inadvertently influence the outcome of an experiment or the interpretation of its results

population

the entire set of individuals or items that a study aims to understand, analyze, or draw conclusions about

sample

a subset of individuals or items selected from a larger population for the purpose of conducting research or analysis

sampling bias

the method used to select a sample results in a group that is not representative of the larger population from which it was drawn

random sample

a subset of individuals or items selected from a larger population where each member of the population has an equal chance of being included in the sample

convenience sampling

a non-random sampling method where participants are selected based on their easy accessibility or proximity to the researcher

representative sample

a subset of a population that accurately reflects the characteristics, diversity, and proportions of the larger group from which it is drawn

experimental methodology

a systematic approach used in scientific research to investigate hypotheses and answer research questions through controlled experiments

non-experimental methodology

research approaches that do not involve manipulating variables or conducting controlled experiments

correlation

a statistical relationship between two or more variables

correlation coefficient

a statistical measure that quantifies the strength and direction of the linear relationship between two variables

variable

any characteristic, number, or quantity that can be measured or quantified

scatterplot

a graphical representation used to display the relationship between two continuous variables

illusory correlation

a cognitive bias where people perceive a relationship between two variables even when none exists or when the relationship is weaker than perceived

regression toward the mean

a statistical phenomenon where extreme values on one measurement tend to be closer to the average on subsequent measurements

experiment

a systematic investigation designed to test a hypothesis or explore a scientific question by manipulating and controlling variables to observe their effects

experimental group

a group in a scientific experiment that receives the treatment or condition being tested

control group

a group in an experiment that does not receive the experimental treatment or intervention

independent variables

a type of variable in an experiment or study that is deliberately manipulated or controlled by the researcher to observe its effect on another variable

dependent variables

a type of variable in an experiment or study that is measured or observed to assess the effect of changes in the independent variable

random assignment

a process used in experimental research to assign participants or subjects to different groups in a way that is entirely based on chance

single blind procedure

a methodological technique used in experiments to prevent participants from being influenced by their knowledge of their group assignment

double blind procedure

a methodological approach used in research to minimize bias by ensuring that both the participants and the researchers involved in the study are unaware of which participants are receiving the experimental treatment and which are receiving the control or placebo

placebo

a substance or treatment that has no therapeutic effect but is used as a control in clinical trials and experiments to test the efficacy of a new medication, treatment, or intervention

placebo effect

a psychological and physiological phenomenon where a patient experiences a perceived or actual improvement in their condition due to their belief or expectation that they are receiving treatment, even when the treatment they receive is inert or lacks therapeutic properties

confounding variable

an external factor or variable that influences both the independent variable and the dependent variable in a study, potentially leading to a false or misleading association between them

experimenter bias

the unconscious or intentional influence that a researcher or experimenter might have on the outcomes of a study due to their expectations, beliefs, or behaviors

quantitative research

a systematic investigation that primarily focuses on quantifying relationships, behaviors, phenomena, or patterns using numerical data and statistical methods

qualitative research

an investigative approach focused on exploring and understanding the meaning, experiences, and perspectives of individuals or groups

likert scales

a type of rating scale commonly used in surveys and questionnaires to measure attitudes, opinions, or perceptions

institutional review

the process of evaluating research proposals to ensure that they meet ethical standards and protect the rights and welfare of participants

informed consent

a fundamental ethical and legal requirement in research and clinical practice. It refers to the process through which individuals are provided with adequate information about a study or treatment and voluntarily agree to participate or receive it

informed assent

a process similar to informed consent but specifically designed for individuals who are not legally able to provide full informed consent due to age or cognitive limitations

protect from harm

the ethical principle and practice of safeguarding individuals from physical, psychological, emotional, or social risks during participation in research, clinical treatments, or other activities

confidentiality

the ethical and legal obligation to protect and secure private information shared by individuals, ensuring that it is not disclosed to unauthorized parties without the individual's consent

research confederates

individuals who are secretly part of a research team but pose as participants or members of a study’s environment

debriefing

a process that occurs after a research study or clinical intervention, where participants are provided with comprehensive information about the study's true nature, purpose, and procedures

descriptive statistics

methods used to summarize and organize data in a meaningful way. They provide a snapshot of the dataset by presenting its key characteristics without making inferences or predictions

histogram

a type of bar graph that represents the distribution of numerical data by displaying the frequency of data points within specified intervals, known as bins

measure of central tendency

statistical metrics used to identify the central or typical value in a dataset

mode

a measure of central tendency that represents the value or values that appear most frequently in a dataset; the value with the highest frequency.

mean

a measure of central tendency that represents the typical value in a dataset. It is calculated by summing all the values in the dataset and then dividing by the number of values.

median

a measure of central tendency that represents the middle value in a dataset when the values are arranged in ascending or descending order. It divides the dataset into two equal halves, with 50% of the values falling below the median and 50% falling above it.

percentile rank

a statistical measure that indicates the relative standing of a value within a dataset

skewed distribution

a type of probability distribution in which the data points are not symmetrically distributed around the mean

measures of variation

statistical tools used to describe the spread or variability of data in a dataset

range

a measure of variation or dispersion in a dataset that represents the difference between the highest and lowest values

standard deviation

a measure of dispersion that quantifies the amount of variation or spread in a dataset

normal curve

a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that represents the distribution of a continuous random variable in statistics

inferential statistics

a branch of statistics that focuses on drawing conclusions or making predictions about a population based on a sample of data from that population

meta analysis

a statistical technique used to combine and analyze results from multiple independent studies on the same topic to derive a more comprehensive and reliable conclusion

statistical significance

a measure used in hypothesis testing to determine whether an observed effect or relationship in a dataset is unlikely to have occurred by chance alone

effect size

a quantitative measure used to describe the magnitude of a relationship, difference, or impact observed in a study