Exploring Public Speaking: Chapter 13, 14, and 15 terms

Proposition

The central idea statement in a persuasive speech; a statement made advancing a judgment or opinion

Target audience

The members of an audience the speaker most wants to persuade and who are likely to be receptive to persuasive messages

Persuasion

A symbolic process in which communicators try to convince other people to change their attitudes or behavior regarding an issue through the transmission of a message, in an atmosphere of free choice

Mental dialogue

An imagined conversation the speaker has with a given audience in which the speaker tries to anticipate what questions, concerns, or issues the audience may have on the subject under discussion

Selective exposure

The decision to expose ourselves to messages that we already agree with, rather than those that confront or challenge us

Cognitive dissonance

A psychological phenomenon where people confronted with conflicting information or viewpoints reach a state of dissonance (generally the disagreement between conflicting thoughts and/or actions), which can be very uncomfortable, and results in actions to get rid of the dissonance and maintain consonance

Two-tailed arguments

A persuasive technique in which a speaker brings up a counter-argument to their own topic and then directly refutes the claim

Ethos

The influence of speaker credentials and character in a speech; arguments based on credibility and the audience's perceptions of a speaker's leadership qualities such as competence, character, goodwill, and dynamism

Pathos

The use of emotions such as anger, joy, hate, desire for community, and love to persuade the audience of the rightness of a proposition; appeals to personal feelings; arguments based on emotion

Logos

Logical and organized arguments and the credible evidence to support them within a speech; a form of proof that appeals to reason based largely on facts and expert testimony presented logically; arguments based on logic

Analogical reasoning

Drawing conclusions about an object or phenomenon based on its similarities to something else

Figurative analogy

An analogy where the two things under comparison are not essentially the same

Literal analogy

An analogy where the two things under comparison have sufficient or significant similarities to be compared fairly

Logical fallacies

Errors in reasoning that make persuasion unreliable; erroneous conclusions or statements made from poor inductive or deductive analyses

Inductive reasoning

A type of reasoning in which examples or specific instances are used to supply strong evidence for the truth of the conclusion (the scientific method); reasoning from specific factual instances to reach a general conclusion

Generalization

A form of inductive reasoning that draws conclusions based on recurring patterns or repeated observations

Causal reasoning

A form of inductive reasoning that seeks to make cause-effect connections

Sign reasoning

A form of inductive reasoning in which conclusions are drawn about phenomena based on events that precede or co-exist with (but not cause) a subsequent event

Deductive reasoning

A type of reasoning in which a conclusion is based on the combination of multiple premises generally assumed to be true, arguing from a general principle to a specific case

Syllogism

A three-sentence argument composed of a major premise (a generalization or principle that is accepted as true), a minor premise (an example of the major premise), and a conclusion

Enthymeme

A syllogism with one of the premises missing

False analogy

A fallacy where two things are compared that do not share enough (or key) similarities to be compared fairly

False cause

A general fallacy involving causal reasoning, where it is assumed that something that is neither strong nor direct enough has caused something else, or something that happened first in time caused something later

Slippery slope

A fallacy that assumes that taking a first step will lead to subsequent events that cannot be prevented, establishing an inevitable trend that will lead to disastrous results

Hasty generalization

A fallacy that involves making a generalization with too few examples; an error of inductive reasoning in which a claim is made based on insufficient or unrepresentative information

Straw man

A fallacy that understates, distorts, or otherwise misrepresents the position of opponents (often showing only the weaker side of an opponent's argument) for ease of refutation

Post hoc ergo propter hoc (historical fallacy)

An inductive error (also known as the historical fallacy) in which one event is assumed to be the cause of another simply because the first preceded the second, using progression in time as the sole reason for causation

Argument from Silence

Making a converse argument from lack of evidence or information about a conclusion

Non sequitur

A fallacy where the conclusion does not follow from its premises or from relevant evidence

False Dilemma

A fallacy that forces listeners to choose between two alternatives when more than two alternatives exist, or suggests that there are only two options, only one of which is desirable

Appeal to Tradition

Arguing that traditional practice and long-term history is the only reason for continuing a policy

Bandwagon

A fallacy that assumes that because something is popular, it is therefore good, correct, or desirable

Red herring

Creating a diversion or introducing an irrelevant point to distract someone or get someone off the subject of the argument, using irrelevant material to divert attention

Ad hominem

A fallacy that attacks the person rather than dealing with the real issue in dispute; an attempt to discredit a position by attacking the people who favor it

Ad Misericordiam

Inappropriate appeal to pity or emotions to hide lack of facts or argument

Manipulative Persuasion

Persuasion that works through suggestion, colorful images, music, and attractive spokespersons more than through evidence and reasoning. It avoids the ethical burden of justification.

Reasoned Persuasion

Persuasion built on evidence and reasoning

Evidence

Supporting materials used in persuasive speeches, including facts and figures, examples, narratives, and testimony

Reluctant Witnesses

Witnesses who testify against their apparent self-interest

Proof

An array of evidence that drives thoughtful listeners toward conclusion

Mythos

A form of proof grounded in the social feelings that connect us powerfully with group traditions, values, legends, and loyalties

Initial Credibility

The audience's assessment of your ethos before you begin your speech

Emerging Credibility

The changes in the audience's assessment of ethos that occur during your speech

Terminal Credibility

The audience's assessment of ethos after a speaker has made a presentation

Reason from principle

Reasoning from shared principles, values, and rules. Sometimes called deductive reasoning.

Major premise

The general principle on which an argument is based

Minor premise

Relating a specific instance to the general principle that supports an argument

Conclusion

Meaning drawn from the relationship between the major and minor premises

Reasoning from parallel cases

Presenting a similar situation as the basis of an argument. Often called analogical reasoning.

Confusion of fact and opinion

A misuse of evidence in which personal opinions are offered as though they were facts, or facts dismissed as mere opinion

Myth of the mean

The deceptive use of statistical averages in speeches

Flawed statistical comparisons

Statistical reasoning that offers fallacious conclusions by comparing unlike or unequal situations

Begging the question

Assuming that an argument has been proved without actually presenting the evidence

Shaky principle fallacy

A reasoning error that occurs when an argument is based on a faulty premise

Omitted qualifier

A fallacy that occurs when speakers exaggerate the strength of a claim, confusing probability with certainty