APUSH Period 7 P2 Flashcards (Cumulative)

Columbian Exchange

The widespread exchange of plants, animals, diseases, technologies, and people between the Americas, Europe, and Africa after Christopher Columbus’s voyages beginning in 1492. Crops like corn, potatoes, and tomatoes were introduced to Europe and helped increase global populations, while Europeans brought horses, cattle, wheat, and devastating diseases such as smallpox and measles to the Americas. The Columbian Exchange dramatically reshaped ecosystems, economies, and societies across the Atlantic world.

Christopher Columbus

An Italian explorer sailing for Spain who reached the Caribbean in 1492. His voyages began sustained contact between Europe and the Americas, initiating European colonization and the Columbian Exchange. Though he did not reach mainland North America, his expeditions marked the beginning of large-scale European exploration and conquest of the Western Hemisphere.

Maize cultivation

The farming of corn by many Native American societies, which allowed for permanent settlements and population growth. Maize agriculture supported complex societies such as those in Mesoamerica and the Mississippi River Valley, including the Mississippian civilization, which built large cities like Cahokia.

Cahokia

The largest known pre-Columbian city in North America, located near present-day St. Louis. It was part of the Mississippian culture and demonstrated that Native American societies could develop complex urban centers with trade networks, agriculture, and political organization before European arrival.

Spanish conquest of the Americas

Spain built a vast empire in the Americas during the 1500s through military conquest, alliances with Native groups, and the devastating impact of disease on indigenous populations. Spanish conquistadors sought wealth and religious conversion of Native Americans to Christianity.

Hernán Cortés

A Spanish conquistador who conquered the Aztec Empire in 1521 with a small Spanish force aided by Native American allies and the spread of disease. His victory gave Spain control over large parts of Mexico and demonstrated how European technology and alliances helped conquer Native empires.

Encomienda system

A Spanish labor system in which colonists were granted the right to demand labor and tribute from Native Americans in exchange for protection and religious instruction. In practice, the system led to severe exploitation and forced labor of indigenous populations.

Bartolomé de las Casas

A Spanish Catholic priest who criticized Spanish treatment of Native Americans and advocated for their rights. His writings helped bring attention to the abuses of the encomienda system and influenced debates about how indigenous peoples should be treated.

Atlantic slave trade beginnings

As Native populations declined from disease and forced labor, Europeans increasingly relied on enslaved Africans as a labor source in the Americas. This system eventually developed into the transatlantic slave trade connecting Europe, Africa, and the Americas.

Jamestown (1607)

The first permanent English settlement in North America, established by the Virginia Company in present-day Virginia. The colony initially struggled due to disease, starvation, and conflicts with Native Americans but eventually became economically successful through tobacco cultivation.

John Smith

A leader in early Jamestown who imposed strict discipline and organized labor, famously stating “he who does not work shall not eat.” His leadership helped the colony survive during its difficult early years.

John Rolfe

An English colonist who introduced a profitable strain of tobacco to Virginia. Tobacco quickly became the colony’s main cash crop, transforming the economy and increasing the demand for labor.

House of Burgesses (1619)

The first representative legislative assembly in the English colonies, established in Virginia. It allowed colonists to participate in local government and became an important precedent for representative democracy in America.

Indentured servitude

A labor system in which workers signed contracts to work for a set number of years in exchange for passage to the colonies, food, and shelter. Many early colonial laborers were indentured servants before slavery became dominant.

Bacon’s Rebellion (1676)

A rebellion led by Nathaniel Bacon against the Virginia colonial government. Frontier settlers were angry about Native American policy and political inequality. The rebellion revealed tensions between wealthy landowners and poorer colonists and encouraged elites to rely more heavily on enslaved labor rather than indentured servants.

Puritans

English Protestants who wanted to reform and purify the Church of England. Many migrated to New England in the 1600s to build communities based on strict religious values.

John Winthrop

The first governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony who envisioned the colony as a “city upon a hill,” meaning it should serve as a model Christian society for the world.

Mayflower Compact (1620)

A governing agreement signed by Pilgrims aboard the Mayflower that established a form of self-government based on majority rule.

Roger Williams

A Puritan minister who believed in religious freedom and separation of church and state. After being banished from Massachusetts, he founded Rhode Island as a colony with religious tolerance.

Anne Hutchinson

A religious dissenter who challenged Puritan authority and argued individuals could interpret the Bible for themselves. She was banished from Massachusetts for her beliefs.

King Philip’s War (1675–1676)

A major conflict between New England colonists and Native American tribes led by Metacom (King Philip). The war resulted in massive Native American casualties and strengthened colonial control over the region.

Navigation Acts

British laws regulating colonial trade to ensure that economic benefits flowed to England. They required goods to be shipped on English vessels and limited trade with other nations.

Salutary neglect

Britain’s unofficial policy of loosely enforcing trade laws in the colonies during the early 1700s, allowing colonial economies to develop independently.

French and Indian War (1754–1763)

A war between Britain and France over control of North America. Britain’s victory gave it control of French territory but left it with large war debts that led to new taxes on the colonies.

Proclamation Line of 1763

A British policy prohibiting colonial settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains to prevent conflicts with Native Americans. Colonists widely ignored it.

Stamp Act (1765)

A direct tax on printed materials such as newspapers and legal documents. Colonists protested the tax because they lacked representation in Parliament.

Samuel Adams

A colonial leader and member of the Sons of Liberty who helped organize resistance to British taxation.

Boston Massacre (1770)

A confrontation between British soldiers and colonists in which soldiers fired into a crowd, killing five people. The event became propaganda used by colonial leaders to oppose British rule.

Boston Tea Party (1773)

A protest in which colonists dumped British tea into Boston Harbor to oppose the Tea Act.

Thomas Jefferson

The primary author of the Declaration of Independence, which declared that all men possess natural rights such as life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.

George Washington

Commander of the Continental Army during the American Revolution and later the first President of the United States.

Articles of Confederation

The first U.S. government, which created a weak central government with most power held by the states.

Shays’ Rebellion

A rebellion by farmers protesting economic hardships and high taxes. It revealed weaknesses in the Articles of Confederation.

James Madison

Known as the “Father of the Constitution,” he played a major role in drafting the Constitution and promoting its ratification.

Thomas Jefferson

Third President of the United States who promoted agrarian democracy and oversaw the Louisiana Purchase.

Louisiana Purchase (1803)

The United States purchased a vast territory from France, doubling the nation’s size and encouraging westward expansion.

Marbury v. Madison (1803)

A Supreme Court decision that established the principle of judicial review, giving courts the power to declare laws unconstitutional.

War of 1812

A conflict between the United States and Britain caused by trade restrictions, impressment of sailors, and conflicts with Native Americans.

Andrew Jackson

A military hero and later president who represented the rise of “Jacksonian Democracy,” emphasizing the power of the common man and expanding suffrage for white men.

Market Revolution

A transformation of the U.S. economy in the early 1800s involving industrialization, new transportation systems, and increased commercial agriculture.

Erie Canal

A canal completed in 1825 that connected the Great Lakes to the Atlantic Ocean, dramatically reducing transportation costs and increasing trade.

Second Great Awakening

A religious revival movement that inspired reform movements such as abolitionism, temperance, and women’s rights.

Frederick Douglass

A formerly enslaved abolitionist who became a powerful speaker and writer advocating the end of slavery.

Seneca Falls Convention (1848)

The first major women’s rights convention, organized by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott.

Manifest Destiny

The belief that Americans were destined to expand across the continent, spreading democracy and civilization.

Mexican-American War

A war fought from 1846 to 1848 that resulted in the U.S. gaining California and much of the Southwest.

Abraham Lincoln

The 16th President of the United States who led the Union during the Civil War and issued the Emancipation Proclamation.

Emancipation Proclamation

An order by Lincoln in 1863 declaring enslaved people in Confederate territory free, shifting the war’s purpose toward ending slavery.

Ulysses S. Grant

A Union general who later became president during Reconstruction.

Reconstruction Amendments

The 13th abolished slavery, the 14th granted citizenship and equal protection, and the 15th protected voting rights.

Sharecropping

A farming system where landowners allowed tenants to farm land in exchange for a share of the crop, often trapping farmers in debt.

Industrialization

Rapid economic growth driven by factories, railroads, and new technologies after the Civil War.

Andrew Carnegie

A steel industry leader who promoted the idea that wealthy individuals had a responsibility to give back to society.

John D. Rockefeller

Founder of Standard Oil who built a massive oil monopoly through aggressive business practices.

Sherman Antitrust Act

A law intended to break up monopolies and restore competition in the economy.

Populist Movement

A political movement of farmers seeking government regulation of railroads, currency reform, and economic relief.

Theodore Roosevelt

Progressive president who pursued trust-busting, conservation policies, and stronger federal regulation of business.

Woodrow Wilson

Progressive president who implemented reforms including the Federal Reserve Act and led the United States during World War I.

Federal Reserve Act (1913)

Created the Federal Reserve System to regulate banks and stabilize the U.S. financial system.

World War I causes

Militarism, alliances, imperialism, and nationalism increased tensions among European powers.

Zimmermann Telegram

A secret German message proposing a military alliance with Mexico against the United States, helping push the U.S. into World War I.

Harlem Renaissance

A cultural movement in the 1920s celebrating African American art, literature, and music, with figures such as Langston Hughes and Zora Neale Hurston.

Consumer culture of the 1920s

Economic prosperity fueled by mass production, advertising, and new technologies such as automobiles and radios.

What was "Black Thursday"?

October 24, 1929, when heavy selling began on the stock market and signaled the start of the market collapse leading to the Great Depression.

What was "Black Tuesday"?

October 29, 1929, when panic selling caused the largest collapse in stock prices during the Stock Market Crash.

What is a bank run?

When large numbers of depositors withdraw money from banks at the same time due to fears the bank will fail, often causing the bank to collapse.

What is deflation?

A decrease in prices and wages that occurred during the Great Depression, which reduced business profits and worsened unemployment.

What was the Hawley-Smoot Tariff?

A 1930 law that raised tariffs on imports to protect American industries but worsened the Great Depression by reducing international trade.

Why did the Hawley-Smoot Tariff worsen the Great Depression?

Other nations retaliated with tariffs, causing global trade to collapse and worsening the worldwide economic crisis.

What was the Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA)?

A New Deal program that paid farmers to reduce crop production to raise agricultural prices.

Why was the AAA controversial?

It reduced food production while many Americans were hungry and disproportionately helped large farmers over small farmers and tenant farmers.

What Supreme Court case struck down the AAA?

United States v. Butler (1936), which ruled the AAA unconstitutional because it interfered with state agricultural production.

What was the Second New Deal?

A set of more aggressive reforms passed between 1935–1938 focusing on social welfare, labor rights, and wealth redistribution.

What was Huey Long's "Share Our Wealth" plan?

A populist proposal advocating heavy taxes on the wealthy and guaranteed incomes for Americans.

Who was Father Charles Coughlin?

A Catholic priest who criticized banks and capitalism during the Depression and called for monetary reforms.

Who was Dr. Francis Townsend?

Proposed the Townsend Plan, which suggested giving monthly pensions to elderly Americans funded by a national sales tax.

What was the court-packing plan?

Roosevelt’s proposal in 1937 to add more justices to the Supreme Court to gain support for New Deal legislation.

Why did the court-packing plan fail?

Congress and the public feared it threatened judicial independence and separation of powers.

What is the term "broker state"?

A government that mediates between competing interests such as businesses, labor unions, and farmers.

What is modern American liberalism?

A political ideology that supports government intervention in the economy to promote social welfare and economic stability.

What was the "Roosevelt Recession"?

A recession in 1937–1938 caused partly by reduced government spending and attempts to balance the federal budget.

What demographic group shifted strongly toward the Democratic Party during the New Deal?

African Americans, urban immigrants, labor unions, and working-class voters.

Why did African Americans begin supporting Democrats during the New Deal?

Although the New Deal had limits on racial equality, economic relief programs helped many Black Americans, shifting political loyalties.

What were "Black Cabinets"?

Informal groups of African American advisors who helped Roosevelt address racial issues.

Who was A. Philip Randolph?

A civil rights leader who threatened a march on Washington in 1941, leading to the creation of the Fair Employment Practices Committee.

What was the Dust Bowl migration?

The movement of farmers from the Great Plains to western states, especially California, due to environmental disaster and economic hardship.

What novel depicted Dust Bowl migration?

"The Grapes of Wrath" by John Steinbeck.

What was isolationism?

The belief that the United States should avoid military alliances and foreign conflicts.

What factors contributed to isolationism in the 1930s?

Disillusionment with World War I, the Great Depression, and investigations showing arms manufacturers profited from war.

What was the Nye Committee?

A Senate investigation that concluded arms manufacturers influenced the U.S. entry into WWI, strengthening isolationist sentiment.

What was fascism?

An authoritarian political ideology emphasizing nationalism, dictatorship, and suppression of opposition.

Which countries were fascist before WWII?

Germany under Hitler, Italy under Mussolini, and Japan under militarist leadership.

Why did many Americans oppose entering WWII initially?

Memories of WWI, economic concerns, and strong isolationist beliefs.

What was the America First Committee?

An isolationist group that opposed U.S. involvement in World War II before Pearl Harbor.

What event ended American isolationism?

The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941.

What happened at Pearl Harbor?

Japan launched a surprise attack on the U.S. naval base in Hawaii, destroying ships and aircraft and killing over 2,400 Americans.

Why did Japan attack Pearl Harbor?

To weaken the U.S. Pacific Fleet and prevent interference with Japanese expansion in Asia.

What was the Manhattan Project?

The secret U.S. program to develop atomic bombs during World War II.

Who were the scientists involved in the Manhattan Project?

Included physicists such as J. Robert Oppenheimer and Albert Einstein (who warned about nuclear weapons).

What was VE Day?

Victory in Europe Day on May 8, 1945, marking Nazi Germany’s surrender.