Social Problems MIDTERM

SOC 111, Dr. Jess Lee

Affirmative action

refers to special consideration for minorities and women in employment and education to compensate for the discrimination and lack of opportunities they experience in the larger society

Capitalism

an economic system in which the means of production are privately owned; with means of production being land, tools, technology, anything needed to produce goods and service

Cisgender

people whose gender identity aligns with the sex they were assigned at birth

Class consciousness

an awareness of the reasons for their oppression among workers (tends to lead to workers revolting against the bourgeoisie to eliminate the oppression and exploitation they suffer)

Colorblind

refers to the ideology that race should be ignored or that we should act as if we “don’t see race” when interacting with others or making a decision

Conflict theory

emphasizes social inequality and suggests that far-reaching social change is needed to achieve a just society. It is characterized by inequality, competition over scarce resources, and power struggles between different groups.

Contact hypothesis

a theory proposing that intergroup prejudice and conflict can be reduced through direct contact between members of different groups under the right conditions

Controlling Images

are stereotypical representations of marginalized groups that justify and maintain systems of oppression by shaping how these groups are perceived and treated in society.

Culture of poverty

is a theory proposing that people living in poverty develop a distinct set of values, beliefs, and behaviors that perpetuate their economic disadvantages across generations

Deindustrialization

refers to the decline of manufacturing and industrial activity in a region or economy, typically involving factory closures, job losses, and the shift toward service-based economies

Democratic socialism

the combination of capitalism and socialism, and social democracies are the nations that combine both elements of capitalism and socialism (ex: Denmark, Sweden, etc). This means it is a political and economic ideology that advocates for a socialist economy, where major industries and resources are collectively or publicly owned, but are achieved and maintained through democratic political processes rather than revolution or authoritarianism

Doing gender

is a concept that views gender not as something we inherently are, but as something we actively do through everyday interactions and performances

Domination

refers to the exercise of power and authority by individuals or groups over others, creating hierarchical relationships where some command and others obey or comply

Economic inequality

refers to the extent of the economic difference between the rich and the poor.

Economy

the social institution that organizes the production, distribution, and consumption of a society’s goods and services. This is different from the government which is the social institution through which power is distributed and exercised

Ethnicity

refers to the shared social, cultural, and historical experiences, stemming from common national or regional backgrounds, that make subgroups of a population different from one another

Femininity

refers to cultural expectations of girls and women, including gentleness and attractiveness

Feminist theories

a diverse set of perspectives that analyze gender inequality, examine how patriarchy operates, and advocate for women’s rights and gender injustice

Functionalism

emphasizes the importance of social institutions for social stability and implies that far reaching social change will be socially harmful.

Gender

the social and cultural differences a society assigns to people based on their biological sex

Gender binary

the system or idea that only recognizes two genders–male and female–that everyone fits into, also seen as mutually exclusive

Gender expression

the way an individual outwardly displays their gender through things like clothing, hairstyles, and other behaviors that some may view as typically masculine, feminine, both or neither

Gender identity

the internal sense of being a man, woman, both or neither—which may not align with the sex they were assigned at birth

Gender inequality

the unequal distribution of power, resources, opportunities, and respect between genders—typically privilege towards the man with disadvantage for women and other minorities

Gender pay gap

the overall difference in earnings between men and women—typically measured as how much a woman makes to every dollar that a man does

Gender roles

social expectations about how people should behave, act, and dress based on society’s perception of their gender

Gender socialization

the process of learning and internalizing gender roles and norms based on family, schools, peers, media, work, and religion

Gendered division of labor

the split of work depending on gender and what is culturally considered each gender’s job in the home or labor market

Genderqueer

umbrella term for people who do not see their gender identity as strictly female or male—sometimes both, neither, or something different

Glass ceiling

an idea of an invisible or informal barrier that prevents women and other marginalized groups from rising to high positions of pay or power despite being qualified

Hegemony

the dominance of one group’s view of the world, values, and norms over others—typically do the point that their views seem natural and like common-sense rather than a form of their power over society

Heterosexual privilege

unearned advantages in society because people see their sexual orientation as the norm

Implicit bias

automatic or unconscious association of certain traits with groups—even when someone attempts to consciously reject prejudice

Income

the money a person or household receives over a period of time (ie. wages, salaries, investments, government benefits, etc)

Industrialization

historical process of economies shifting from agriculture and hand-production to manufacturing and factory production using machines

Integration

 the process of bringing people or groups from different backgrounds into equal participation in communities, social life, and institutions

Intergenerational wealth transfer

the passing of economic resources (money, property or business) from one generation to the next

Internalized oppression

members of a marginalized group begin to accept negative stereotypes and beliefs about their own group apply to themselves

Intersectionality

multiple systems of oppression (racism, sexism, homophobia, classism) intersect and shape individual experiences based on their combined identities

Intersex

people born with sex traits that do not fit typical medical definitions of strictly male or female bodies

LGBTQ+

umbrella acronym for people whose sexual orientations or gender identities are not strictly heterosexual and cisgender

heterosexism

system of beliefs, practices, and institutional arrangements that assumes heterosexuality is normal and superior, thereby marginalizing and disadvantaging non‑heterosexual people

Male privilege

Unearned advantages and benefits that men receive in a patriarchal society relative to women and gender minorities, often taken for granted as normal

Masculinities

The socially constructed ways of being a man, recognizing that there are multiple forms shaped by culture, class, race, and sexuality rather than one single male identity

Hegemonic Masculinity

A dominant form of culture or identity that becomes taken as “common sense”

Toxic Masculinity

Describes forms of masculinity or behavior that emphasize dominance, aggression, emotional suppression, and hostility in ways that harm both the person enacting them and others

Matrix of domination

framework describing how multiple, interlocking systems of power and oppression (such as racism, sexism, classism, heterosexism) together structure people’s positions and life chances

Microaggression

Everyday, often subtle slights, insults, or dismissals that communicate negative or demeaning messages to members of marginalized groups, whether intentional or not

Middle class

A social class with moderate to above‑average income and education, some economic security, and occupations like clerical, technical, or professional work

Motherhood penalty

The wage and career disadvantages mothers experience compared with non‑mothers and with fathers, including lower pay, fewer promotions, and hiring discrimination

Oppression

Systematic and institutionalized harm, exploitation, and restriction of a group’s opportunities and rights, maintained through power relations and dominant ideologies

Five faces of oppression

exploitation, marginalization, powerlessness, cultural imperialism, and violence

Poverty

A condition in which people lack enough income or resources to meet basic needs such as food, housing, healthcare, and other essentials

Poverty line/threshold

The official minimum income level defined as adequate to meet basic needs; individuals or families with income below this line are classified as poor

Prejudice

A preconceived, usually negative attitude or feeling toward people based on their membership in a particular group rather than on individual characteristics

Privilege

Unearned advantages, benefits, or immunities enjoyed by members of a dominant or advantaged group relative to others in society

Race

A socially constructed classification of people based on perceived physical traits like skin color that are given social meaning and used to organize hierarchies

Racial segregation

The enforced or de facto separation of people into different neighborhoods, schools, or institutions based on race, producing unequal access to resources

Racial socioeconomic disparities

Systematic differences between racial groups in outcomes like income, wealth, education, employment, and health, reflecting past and present discrimination

Racism

A system of beliefs, practices, and institutions that assigns value and allocates resources based on race, producing and justifying racial hierarchy and inequality

3 levels/types of racism

individual (personal prejudice and discriminatory acts), institutional (policies and practices within organizations), and structural or systemic (the combined effect of institutions and histories that maintain racial inequality)

Reproductive rights/justice

The rights and broader movement concerned with people’s ability to decide whether, when, and how to have children, including access to contraception, abortion, prenatal care, and conditions to parent safely and with dignity

Reverse Racism

A disputed term used to describe discrimination against dominant racial groups; critics argue it misuses “racism” by ignoring the role of power and structural inequality

Same-sex marriage

legal recognition of marriage between two people of the same gender, granting them the same rights and responsibilities as different‑sex married couples.

Sex Reassignment Surgery

Surgical procedures that alter a person’s primary or secondary sex characteristics to better align their body with their gender identity

Sex segregation

The separation of people by sex or gender into different jobs, spaces, or institutions, such as gendered occupations or single‑sex facilities

Sex work

The exchange of sexual services for money or goods, including activities such as prostitution, escorting, and some forms of pornography

Sexual deviance

Sexual behaviors defined by a particular society or group as violating accepted sexual norms or expectations

Sexual harassment

Unwanted sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, or other sexual conduct that creates a hostile environment or is tied to conditions of employment, education, or other opportunities

Sexual orientation

A pattern of physical, mental, emotional, and sexual attraction toward one or more genders

Sexuality

A person’s overall capacity to feel sexual and/or romantic attraction, experience sexual desire, and express this through identities, behaviors, and relationships across their life

Social construction

The idea that what we see as “reality” (like race, gender, or deviance) is shaped by social processes, cultural meanings, and interactions, rather than being purely natural or fixed

Social problem

Any condition or behavior that has harmful consequences for large numbers of people and is widely recognized as needing collective or systemic action

Objective

Measurable, empirical evidence of harm or inequality

Subjective

People’s beliefs, perceptions, and judgments that a condition is a problem that must be addressed

Social stratification

A structured system by which society ranks categories of people in a hierarchy based on resources and power (such as class, race, gender)

Socialism

An economic and political system in which key resources and means of production are collectively owned or controlled (often by the state or communities) with the goal of reducing inequality and meeting social needs

Sociological imagination

The ability to connect personal experiences (“private troubles”) to larger social structures and historical forces (“public issues”), seeing how society shapes individual lives

Stereotypes

Oversimplified, generalized beliefs about members of a social group that ignore individual differences and often justify prejudice or discrimination

Structural explanation of poverty

A perspective that attributes poverty to the organization of the economy and society—such as low wages, unequal schools, discrimination, or lack of jobs—rather than individual failings

Symbolic interactionism

A theoretical perspective that focuses on everyday interactions, shared meanings, and symbols, arguing that people construct social reality through communication and interpretation

Transgender

An umbrella term for people whose gender identity and/or expression differs from the sex they were assigned at birth

Unemployment

The condition of being without paid work while actively seeking a job and being available to start work

Violence against women/Domestic violence

Patterns of physical, sexual, psychological, or economic abuse directed at women, often by intimate partners or family members, used to exert power and control

Vulnerability to poverty

The likelihood that individuals or groups will fall into or remain in poverty because of social, economic, or demographic risk factors (such as low wages, discrimination, unstable employment)

Wealth

The total value of what a person or household owns (assets like property, savings, stocks) minus what they owe (debts), reflecting long-term economic resources and security

Welfare

Government programs that provide financial or in-kind assistance (such as cash benefits, food, housing, or healthcare) to individuals and families in need

“Welfare queen”

A racist and sexist stereotype portraying poor women—often Black women—as cheating or abusing welfare programs, used politically to justify cuts to social benefits

Welfare reform

Changes to welfare policies, typically aimed at reducing long-term dependence on benefits through work requirements, time limits, and stricter eligibility rules

Welfare state

A political system in which the government plays a central role in protecting citizens’ economic and social well-being through programs like social insurance, healthcare, education, and income support

White privilege

Unearned advantages and benefits that white people receive in a racially stratified society, often invisible to them but operating through institutions and everyday interactions

Women’s work

Work that is socially defined as appropriate for women, often in caregiving, domestic, and service roles, and typically undervalued and underpaid

Working class

A social class made up mainly of people who rely on wage labor in manual, service, or lower-level clerical jobs, with limited control over work and fewer economic resources than the middle and upper classes