Semester 1 APGOV Final

Elitism

A theory that a small, wealthy, and powerful group holds most political power.

Pluralism

A theory that political power is spread among many competing interest groups.

Hyper-Pluralism

A theory that too many interest groups weaken government effectiveness.

US Constitution

The supreme law of the United States that establishes the structure of government.

Articles of Confederation

America’s first constitution; created a weak national government.

Checks and Balances

Each branch of government can limit the powers of the other branches.

Separation of Powers

Dividing government into legislative, executive, and judicial branches.

Shay’s Rebellion

A farmer uprising that exposed weaknesses in the Articles of Confederation.

Federalist 10 and 51

10- Madison’s argument that factions are controlled best in a large republic.

51- Madison’s argument for checks and balances to prevent tyranny.

Factions

Groups of people united by a common interest that may harm others’ rights.

Virginia Plan

Proposed a bicameral legislature based on population.

New Jersey Plan

Proposed equal representation for each state.

Connecticut/Great Compromise

Combined population-based and equal representation.

Constitutional Convention

• Purpose: Fix the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation

• Key outcome: Creation of the U.S. Constitution

• Bicameral legislature (House & Senate)

• Checks and balances among branches

• Separation of powers

• Electoral College to choose the president

Judicial Review: Marbury v. Madison

Power of courts to declare laws unconstitutional.

Marbury v. Madison- Established judicial review, giving courts the power to declare laws unconstitutional.

Necessary and Proper Clause

Allows Congress to pass laws needed to carry out enumerated powers.

Commerce Clause

Gives Congress power to regulate interstate and international trade.

Brutus I

Anti-Federalist essay arguing the Constitution gave too much power to the national government.

Declaration of Independence

Document declaring independence from Britain and listing grievances.

Agents of political socialization

Institutions that shape political beliefs (family, school, media).

American exceptionalism

Belief that the U.S. is unique due to its values and institutions.

Public opinion polling

Measuring public attitudes on issues and policies.

• Shortcomings – Sampling bias, wording effects, and timing issues.

• Effect on Policy – Influences lawmakers’ decisions.

Polling

• Effects on politicians: helps candidates adjust campaign strategies, encourages them to take popular positions

• Effects on policymakers: used to gauge public support for laws or reforms, may cause them to prioritize reelection concerns over expertise

Media

• How media affects campaigns: shapes candidate image, determines which issues receive attention

• How candidates affect media: control their message through ads, interviews, social media

Watchdog

Investigates and exposes corruption, abuse of power, and scandals in government.

Agenda setter

Influences what issues the public thinks about by choosing which stories to cover.

Scorekeeper

Tracks and reports on poll numbers, election results, and campaign performance (who’s winning or losing).

Political efficacy

• The belief that citizens can influence government and political outcomes.

• Internal efficacy: Confidence in one’s own political knowledge.

• External efficacy: Belief that government will respond to citizen input.

Linkage institutions

• Organizations that connect citizens to the government.

• Include:

  • Political parties

  • Elections

  • Interest groups

  • Media

• They help translate public preferences into policy action.

Liberal ideology

• Supports active government involvement in the economy.

• Favors social equality, civil rights, and environmental regulation.

• Examples: welfare programs, progressive taxation.

Conservative ideology

• Supports limited government intervention in the economy.

• Emphasizes free markets, individual responsibility, and traditional values.

• Examples: lower taxes, reduced regulation.

Federalism

• A system of government in which power is divided between the national government and the states.

• Established by the Constitution to balance unity and regional autonomy.

Implied Powers

• Powers not explicitly stated in the Constitution but reasonably inferred from enumerated powers.

• Justified by the Necessary and Proper Clause.

• Example: Creating a national bank.

Concurrent Powers

• Powers shared by both the federal and state governments.

• Examples: Taxing, borrowing money, enforcing laws, establishing courts.

Inherent Powers

• Powers held by the federal government because it is a sovereign nation, not because they are listed in the Constitution.

• Examples: Conducting foreign policy, regulating immigration, acquiring territory.

Enumerated Powers

• Powers explicitly listed in the Constitution (Article I, Section 8).

• Examples: Coining money, declaring war, regulating interstate commerce.

Reserved Powers

• Powers not given to the federal government nor prohibited to the states, reserved for the states.

• Based on the 10th Amendment.

• Examples: Education, marriage laws, local policing.

Fiscal Federalism

• The use of federal funds to influence state and local governments.

• Includes:

  • Categorical grants (specific purpose)

  • Block grants (general purpose)

  • Mandates (requirements tied to funding)

Privileges and Immunities

• Clause in Article IV requiring states to treat citizens of other states equally.

• Prevents discrimination in basic rights (employment, legal protections).

McCullough v. Maryland

• Ruled that Congress has implied powers.

• States cannot tax the federal government.

• Strengthened federal supremacy.

Gibbons v Ogden

• Gave Congress broad authority to regulate interstate commerce.

• Expanded federal power over the economy.

U.S v Lopez

• Limited Congress’s power under the Commerce Clause.

• Ruled that possessing a gun near a school is not interstate commerce.

• Strengthened state power.

Role of Lobbyists

• Influence government by providing information, drafting legislation, testifying, and persuading officials.

• Represent interest groups to shape policy outcomes.

Special Interest Groups/PACs

• Interest groups: Organized groups that seek to influence public policy.

• PACs (Political Action Committees): Raise and spend money to support or oppose candidates.

• Super PACs: Can spend unlimited amounts but cannot directly coordinate with candidates.

Factors affecting voting decisions

• Party identification

• Candidate characteristics

• Issues and policy positions

• Retrospective voting (judging past performance)

• Media and campaign messaging

Frontloading

• The process by which states move their primary elections earlier to gain influence.

• Increases importance of early primaries and favors well-funded candidates.

McGovern-Fraser commission

• Reformed Democratic Party nomination process after 1968.

• Increased participation of women, minorities, and young voters.

• Shifted power from party elites to voters through primaries.

Voter ID laws

• State laws requiring voters to present identification at polling places.

• Supporters argue they prevent fraud; critics argue they suppress turnout among minorities and low-income voters.

Factors affecting voting behavior

• Socioeconomic status

• Race and ethnicity

• Religion

• Education

• Age

• Gender

Causes of low voter turnout

• Voter apathy

• Registration requirements

• Weekday elections

• Negative campaigning

• Voter ID laws and disenfranchisement

Caucus/Primaries

• Caucus: Party members meet to discuss and vote; low turnout, favors activists.

• Primary: Voters cast secret ballots.

Open Primary

• Voters can vote in any party’s primary regardless of affiliation.

Closed Primary

• Only registered party members may vote.

Presidential primary process

• Strengthens voter participation and democracy.

• Weakens party control over nominees.

• Encourages candidate-centered campaigns over party unity.

Party conventions

• Officially nominate presidential and vice-presidential candidates.

• Adopt the party platform.

• Promote party unity and enthusiasm.

Reasons for a two party system(Framers v. current)

Framers’ View

• Feared parties would create factions and division.

Current Causes

• Winner-take-all elections

• Single-member districts

• Electoral College

Strengths

• Stability, moderation, easier governance.

Weaknesses

• Limits choices, discourages third parties, polarization.

Voter turn-out

• Higher turnout in presidential elections.

• Lower turnout in midterms due to less media attention and fewer high-profile races.

Electoral College

A constitutional system in which voters choose electors, and the candidate who wins a majority of electoral votes (270) becomes president, with most states using a winner-take-all method.

Winner-take-all system

• Most states award all electoral votes to the candidate who wins the popular vote in that state.

• Increases importance of swing states.

Split-ticket voting

• Voting for candidates from different parties in the same election.

• Declining due to increased party polarization.

Voting Amendments

• 15th: African American right to vote

• 19th: Women’s right to vote

• 24th: Poll taxes banned

• 26th: Voting age set to 18

What do parties do?

• Recruit candidates

• Nominate candidates

• Mobilize voters

• Shape policy and platforms

• Organize government

Gender gap

• Difference in voting patterns between men and women.

• Women tend to vote more Democratic, men more Republican.

Citizens United v FEC

• Ruled that corporations and unions can spend unlimited money on independent political expenditures.

• Increased influence of Super PACs.

Buckley v Valeo (1976)

• Upheld limits on direct contributions to candidates.

• Struck down limits on independent expenditures as free speech.

Republican and Democratic platforms

Democratic Platform

• Supports social welfare programs, environmental regulation, civil rights, and progressive taxation.

Republican Platform

• Supports limited government, free markets, lower taxes, strong national defense, and traditional values.