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Psychological Development

the changes in an individual's social, emotional and cognitive abilities from infancy through to old age

Genes

The basic units of heredity or inheritance that contain genetic information and form a section of DNA.

Heredity

The passing on of genes or genetic information from parents to their offspring.

Genotype

All the genes that a person has inherited from their biological parents.

Phenotype

How a persons genes are expressed.

Hereditary factors

Biological influences on development that result from the genetic information passed from biological parents to their offspring.

Environmental factors

Different external influences within a person's environment that can affect their development.

Attachment

A close, social and emotional bond between an infant and their caregivers.

Emotional Development

changes in how a person experiences, interprets and expresses the full range of emotions, and their ability to cope with them appropriately

Contact Comfort

Stimulation and reassurance carried from the physical touch of a caregiver.

Biological factors

A range of factors that relate to the physiological functioning of the body

Biopsychosocial approach

Considers a persons development and mental wellbeing as influenced by the interactions between biological, psychological and social factors.

Biopsychosocial model

An interdisciplinary model that looks at the interconnection between biology, psychology and social factors.

Genetic vulnerability

An increased likelihood that an individual will develop atypically or experience a mental disorder due to the DNA that they carry

Life stressor

An everyday or conceivable event, such as a relationship breakdown, work challenge or failing a test

Mental disorder

One of a wide range of usually long-lasting conditions that affect mood, thinking and behaviour

Mental health problems

Relatively short-term disruptions that affect the everyday functioning of an individual

Mental wellbeing

A state of emotional and social wellbeing in which individuals realise their own abilities, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and can contribute to their community

Mentally healthy

Someone who does not have difficulty with activities of everyday living, and displaying resilience

Protective factors

A range of factors that may prevent or decrease the chances of developing atypically or having a mental disorder

Psychological factors

A range of factors that relate to the functioning of the brain and the mind, including cognitive and affective processes such as thought patterns and memory

Resilience

The ability to 'bounce back' to previous normal levels of functioning when faced with adversity.

Risk factors

A range of factors that may increase one's chances of developing atypically or having a mental disorder

Social Factors

A range of factors that relate to the conditions in which people live and grow

Social wellbeing

Relates to the connections you make with other people and your ability to get along with people in a community

Abstract thinking

A way of thinking that does not rely on being able to see or visualise things in order to understand concepts

Assimilation

A cognitive process that involves taking in a new concept and fitting it into or making it a part of a pre-existing mental idea or structure.

Accommodation

A cognitive process that involves changing or adjusting existing ideas to deal with new situations

What is the Sensorimotor Stage in Piaget's theory?

The stage from birth to about 2 years of age during which infants learn to coordinate purposeful body movements with sensory information.

What are two mental achievements of the Sensorimotor Stage?

Goal-directed behavior and object permanence.

What is the preoperational stage in Piaget's theory?

The stage from about 2 to 7 years of age during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic.

What is egocentrism in the context of Piaget's preoperational stage?

The inability to differentiate between one's own perspective and that of others.

What is animism in the context of Piaget's preoperational stage?

The belief that inanimate objects have feelings and intentions.

What is symbolic thought in the context of Piaget's preoperational stage?

The ability to use symbols, such as words or images, to represent objects or experiences.

What is the concrete operational stage in Piaget's theory?

The stage (from about 7-11 years of age) during which children's thinking revolves around what they know and can experience through their senses.

What are two mental achievements of children in the concrete operational stage?

Conservation and Reversibility.

What is the Formal Operational stage in Piaget's theory?

The stage (11+) of cognitive development during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts.

What mental achievement is associated with the Formal Operational stage?

Abstract thinking

What is one of the logical thinking achievements in the Formal Operational stage?

Logical thinking

What cognitive skill involves awareness of one's own thought processes in the Formal Operational stage?

Meta cognition

Conservation

The understanding that the physical properties of an object or substance do not change when appearances change.

Reversibility

The understanding that actions can be undone or reversed.

Animism

The belief that inanimate objects have feelings and intentions.

Classification

The ability to sort objects into groups based on their features.

Cognitive development

Changes in an individuals mental abilitys.

Egocentrism

A limited ability to share or appreciate someone else's point of view

Goal-directed behaviour

A planned series of actions with a purpose

Object permanence

An understanding that objects continue to exist even if they cant be touched, seen or heard.

What is symbolic thinking?

A type of thinking that uses symbols to solve simple problems.

What do symbols in symbolic thinking include?

Words or images.

What can symbolic thinking be used to discuss?

Things that are not physically present.

Schema

Our pre-existing mental ideas relating to a given concept that help us organise and interpret new information.

Transformation

An understanding that something can change from one state, form or structure to another.

Accuracy

How close a measurement is to the true value of the quantity being measured.

Contradictory data

Data that appears incorrect

Mean

A statistic that is the average value of a set of data

Measurement error

The difference between a measured value and the true value.

Measures of central tendency

A category of statistics that describes the central value of a set of data.

Measure of variability

A category of statistics that describe the distribution of data.

Median

The middle value in an ordered set of data

Mode

The value that occurs most frequently within a set of data.

Outlier

A value that lies a long way from other results.

Primary data

Data collected through first-hand research for an intended purpose.

Qualitative data

Data that describes characteristics and qualities.

Quantitative data

Data that includes measurable values and quantities and can be compared on a numerical scale.

Secondary data

Data obtained through second hand through research conducted by another person for another purpose

Standard deviation

A statistic that shows the spread of the data around the mean.

Imprinting

Imprinting is a rapid type of learning that occurs during a specific period of development, typically early life.

Critical Period

A specific period in development during which the individual is most vulnerable to the absence of certain environmental stimuli or experiences.

Sensitive Period

A period during development in which the effects of experience on development are particularly strong.

What are atypical behaviours?

Patterns of behaviour that are not expected for an individual.

How do atypical behaviours deviate from the norm?

They can deviate from the norm and can be harmful or distressing for the individual and those around them.

Atypical development

When behaviours, skills or abilities fall outside the expected range of development or progress at a different pace compared to similar-aged peers

Cultural perspectives

A criterion for determining whether a behaviour is typical or atypical, by accounting for cultural norms or societal standards

Social norms

Shared standards or social beliefs about what is normal, acceptable or typical behaviour

Statistical rarity

A criterion that views abnormal or atypical behaviours as deviating significantly from the statistical average or mean

Personal distress

A state in which a person experiences unpleasant or upsetting emotions, such as sadness, anxiety or feeling overwhelmed

Maladaptive behaviour

Behaviour that is unhelpful, dysfunctional and non-productive, and that interferes with a person's ability to adjust to their environment appropriately and effectively

Typical behaviours

Patterns of behaviour that are expected of an individual or that conform to standards of what is acceptable for a given situation

Typical development

When behaviours skills or abilities fall within the expected range of development or progress at a similar pace compared to peers of the same age.

Adaptive

A term used by psychologists to describe emotions, behaviours and cognitions that enable us to adjust to our environment appropriately and cope most effectively.

Maladaptive

A term used by psychologists to describe emotions, behaviours and cognitions that interfere with our ability to adjust to our environment appropriately and effectively.

Cognitions

Cognitive processes or mental actions that involve acquiring, processing and understanding information or knowledge

Adaptive Cognitions

Ways of thinking that are of benefit to our survival and wellbeing

Maladaptive Cognitions

Cognitive distortions or irrational, inflated thoughts or beliefs that distort a person's perception of reality, usually in a negative way.

Emotions

Feelings that arise from our circumstances, mood or relationships with others.

What are maladaptive emotions?

Very intense or overwhelming emotions that occur frequently.

How long do maladaptive emotions persist?

They persist for extended periods of time without interruption.

Are maladaptive emotions appropriate for the situation?

No, they are often inappropriate for the situation.

Cognitive Behavioural therapy

Psychological treatment that targets the relationship between maladaptive thoughts, feelings and behaviours

Maladaptive Behaviours

Coping mechanisms that usually interfere with a person's ability to function on a day-to-day basis and impair their judgement in different situations.

External validity

Whether the results of a study can be generalized to similar individuals in a different setting..

Personal error

A mistake, miscalculation or observer error made when conducting research.

Precision

How close a set of measurement values are to each other.

Random error

An error that creates unpredictable variations in the measurement process and results in a spread of readings.

Repeatability

The closeness of the agreement between successive measures of the same quantity, carried out under the same conditions.

Reproducibility

The closeness of the agreement between measurements of the same quantity, carried out under different conditions.

What is a systematic error?

An error that causes readings to differ from the true value by a consistent amount each time a measurement is made.

How does systematic error affect measurement results?

It affects all results and accuracy.

True value

The value, or range of values, that would be found if the quantity could be measured perfectly.