APGOV final vocab draft 1

Linkage institution

Institution that connects the public to government and influences policy (political parties, elections, interest groups, and the media).

Democracy

System of government in which political power ultimately comes from the people, through direct participation or elected representatives.

Equality in voting

Principle of “one person, one vote”: each citizen’s vote should count equally (equal access/weight).

Elitism

Theory that a small group of people (political/economic elites) hold most power and make key decisions.

Hyperpluralism

Theory that government is controlled by many competing interest groups, causing policy gridlock and incoherent policy.

Policy gridlock

Difficulty passing laws because of competing interests, partisanship, and separated institutions blocking action.

Political culture

Shared values and beliefs about government and politics that shape political behavior in a country.

Laissez-faire

Economic idea that government should play a minimal role in the economy; free-market approach.

Central idea of elitism

Political power is unevenly distributed; elites dominate decision-making while the masses have limited influence.

Three-Fifths Clause

Constitutional compromise counting each enslaved person as 3/5 of a person for representation/taxes.

Natural rights

Rights people have by nature (not granted by government), often listed as life, liberty, and property/pursuit of happiness.

Articles of Confederation

America’s first national government; weak central government with strong state power; led to problems that prompted the Constitution.

Thomas Jefferson

Primary author of the Declaration of Independence (1776).

Tyranny of the majority

When a majority uses its power to infringe on the rights of minorities or individuals.

Number of amendments in the U.S. Constitution

27 amendments.

John Locke

Enlightenment philosopher; social contract + natural rights; influenced Declaration and “consent of the governed.”

James Madison

“Father of the Constitution”; key framer and author of major Federalist Papers; helped draft Bill of Rights.

Connecticut Compromise

Also called the Great Compromise; created a bicameral Congress with equal representation in Senate and population-based representation in House.

Electoral College

System for electing the president in which states choose electors (equal to House seats + Senators) who cast the official votes for president.

Checks and balances

Constitutional system where each branch can limit the powers of the others to prevent tyranny.

Consent of the governed

Idea that government’s legitimate power comes from the permission of the people (social contract).

Prohibited constitutional test

Religious test for public office is prohibited (Article VI).

Judicial interpretation

Courts’ power to interpret the meaning of laws and the Constitution when deciding cases.

Unitary system

Political system where the national government holds most power and local governments have only delegated authority.

Article I, Section 8

Lists Congress’s enumerated powers (e.g., tax, spend, regulate commerce, declare war, raise armies).

Article VI

Includes the Supremacy Clause and bans religious tests for office; makes the Constitution the “supreme law of the land.”

Tenth Amendment

Reserves powers not delegated to the federal government (and not prohibited to states) to the states or the people.

Cooperative federalism

“Marble cake” federalism; national and state governments share responsibilities and work together on policies/programs.

Full Faith and Credit Clause

Article IV clause requiring states to recognize other states’ public acts, records, and court decisions (with some limits).

Block grant

Federal money given to states with broad guidelines, allowing states flexibility in how to spend it.

Gibbons v. Ogden (1824)

Supreme Court case that broadened Congress’s power to regulate interstate commerce.

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)

Supreme Court case confirming implied powers (Necessary and Proper Clause) and limiting states from taxing the federal government.

Dual federalism

“Layer cake” federalism; clear separation of national vs. state responsibilities with limited overlap.

Mandate

Requirement from the federal government that states/localities comply with certain rules (often tied to funding).

Supremacy Clause

Article VI: federal Constitution, laws, and treaties override conflicting state laws.

Concurrent powers (shared powers)

Powers held by both federal and state governments (e.g., taxing, building roads, running courts, making/enforcing laws).

United States v. Lopez (1995)

Supreme Court case limiting Congress’s Commerce Clause power; struck down Gun-Free School Zones Act.

Categorical grant

Federal grant with strict rules and specific purposes; less state flexibility than block grants.

Enumerated powers

Specific powers of Congress listed in Article I, Section 8.

Privileges and Immunities Clause (Article IV)

Requires states to treat citizens of other states equally regarding fundamental rights (no discrimination against out-of-state citizens).

Death penalty laws (federal vs. state)

Capital punishment is allowed under certain procedures; states and the federal government set rules, but the Eighth Amendment and Supreme Court rulings limit “cruel and unusual” punishments and require due process.

Establishment Clause

First Amendment clause prohibiting the government from establishing an official religion or favoring one religion over another.

Exclusionary rule

Rule that illegally obtained evidence (violating the 4th Amendment) cannot be used in court.

Incorporation doctrine

Applying parts of the Bill of Rights to the states through the 14th Amendment’s Due Process Clause (selective incorporation).

Plea bargain

Agreement where a defendant pleads guilty (often to a lesser charge) in exchange for a reduced sentence or dropped charges.

Libel and slander

Defamation: libel = written false statement; slander = spoken false statement that harms reputation.

Fourteenth Amendment

Defines citizenship; includes Due Process and Equal Protection Clauses; foundation for incorporation and many civil rights cases.

Sixth Amendment

Rights of the accused: speedy/public trial, impartial jury, notice of charges, confronting witnesses, compulsory process, and right to counsel.

Free Exercise Clause

First Amendment clause protecting individuals’ right to practice their religion (beliefs protected; actions may be regulated).

First Amendment

Protects freedoms of religion, speech, press, assembly, and petition.

Prior restraint

Government censorship preventing speech/press before it occurs; generally unconstitutional except in extreme cases.

Lemon Test

Three-part test (from Lemon v. Kurtzman) used to evaluate Establishment Clause cases: secular purpose, primary effect neither advances/inhibits religion, no excessive entanglement (later weakened/abandoned in newer rulings).

Miranda rights

Required warnings to suspects in custody: right to remain silent, statements can be used against them, right to an attorney, attorney provided if they can’t afford one.

Mapp v. Ohio (1961)

Applied the exclusionary rule to the states; illegally obtained evidence excluded from state trials.

District of Columbia v. Heller (2008)

Held that the 2nd Amendment protects an individual right to possess a firearm for self-defense (in the home).

Double jeopardy

Fifth Amendment protection against being tried twice for the same offense after acquittal/conviction.

Right to privacy

Implied constitutional protection for personal decisions/private life (derived from several amendments; basis for many cases).

Barron v. Baltimore (1833)

Ruled the Bill of Rights applied only to the federal government, not the states (before incorporation).

Clear and present danger

Standard for limiting speech when it poses a serious, immediate threat (originating in early 20th-century cases).

Citizenship rights (where found)

Defined and protected primarily in the 14th Amendment (Citizenship Clause) and, through incorporation, many Bill of Rights protections apply against states.

Equal Protection Clause

14th Amendment clause requiring states to treat people equally under the law; basis for civil rights and anti-discrimination cases.

Fifteenth Amendment

Prohibits denying the right to vote based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude.

Women’s suffrage

Movement/right for women to vote; nationally guaranteed by the 19th Amendment.

Civil Rights Act of 1964

Federal law banning discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin; ended segregation in public accommodations and outlawed employment discrimination.

Jim Crow laws

State/local laws enforcing racial segregation and discrimination, especially in the South after Reconstruction.

Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)

Upheld racial segregation under “separate but equal,” helping justify Jim Crow laws (later overturned by Brown).

Nineteenth Amendment

Granted women the right to vote nationwide (ratified 1920).

Regents of the University of California v. Bakke (1978)

Held that race can be one factor in admissions to promote diversity, but strict racial quotas are unconstitutional.

Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857)

Ruled enslaved people were not citizens and Congress couldn’t ban slavery in territories; intensified sectional conflict.

School busing / de facto segregation

Using busing to integrate schools when segregation exists in practice due to housing patterns (not required by law).

Brown v. Board of Education (1954)

Declared school segregation unconstitutional; “separate but equal” is inherently unequal.

Korematsu v. United States (1944)

Upheld WWII Japanese American internment (often cited as a major civil liberties failure).

Lawrence v. Texas (2003)

Struck down state anti-sodomy laws; protected private consensual sexual conduct.

NAACP

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People; major civil rights organization that used litigation and advocacy to fight discrimination.

Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)

1990 law banning discrimination against people with disabilities and requiring reasonable accommodations/accessibility in public places and employment.

Intermediate scrutiny

Standard of review for gender (and some other) classifications: law must further an important government interest in a way substantially related to that interest.

De jure segregation

Segregation required by law/government policy.

Title IX

Federal law banning sex discrimination in federally funded education programs; expanded women’s access in academics and sports.

Smallest ethnic minority group in the U.S.

Asian Americans (smaller than Hispanic and Black populations).

Most common ideology in the U.S.

Moderates outnumber liberals and conservatives.

2014 midterm turnout (approx.)

About 36% of eligible voters (low turnout compared to presidential elections).

Simpson-Mazzoli Act (1986)

Immigration Reform and Control Act (IRCA): increased border enforcement, penalized employers for hiring undocumented workers, and offered amnesty to some undocumented immigrants.

Group that consumes the most political news

Older Americans (especially 65+) tend to consume the most political news, often through television.

Random sampling

Selecting individuals so every member of the population has an equal chance of being chosen; helps avoid bias and represent the population.

Letter from a Birmingham Jail

Martin Luther King Jr.’s defense of civil disobedience; argues unjust laws must be challenged and criticized moderates who urged “wait.”

What conservatives generally favor

Limited government, lower taxes, free-market policies, traditional social values, and stronger national defense/law-and-order.

Conventional political participation

Legal, routine activities like voting, volunteering for campaigns, donating, contacting officials, and attending legal meetings/rallies.

Reapportionment

Redistributing House seats among states after each census based on population changes; needed to keep representation aligned with population.

What increases with age (politics)

Political participation—especially voting turnout—generally increases with age.

Liberals vs. conservatives (basic difference)

Liberals favor more government action to address social/economic problems; conservatives favor less government and more reliance on markets/tradition.

Unconventional political participation

Nontraditional actions like protests, boycotts, sit-ins, civil disobedience, or other disruptive tactics to influence government.

Disadvantages of phone opinion surveys

Low response rates, coverage problems (cell-only/number screening), social desirability bias, and difficulty reaching a representative sample.

Candidates women tend to support

Women are more likely than men to support Democratic candidates and candidates emphasizing social welfare/education/health policies (partisan gender gap).

Mass media

Media outlets that communicate to large audiences (TV, newspapers, radio, major online news); key political information source.

FCC

Federal Communications Commission; regulates interstate communications by radio, TV, wire, satellite, and cable.

Primary interest of private media

Profit—attracting audiences to generate advertising/subscription revenue.

Overriding bias in the news

Tendency toward negativity/scandal/conflict because those stories attract attention and ratings.

Investigative reporting

In-depth reporting that uncovers wrongdoing (often by government or powerful organizations).

Narrowcasting

Media strategy targeting specific audiences (e.g., cable channels, podcasts, niche websites) rather than broadcasting to the whole public.

Effect of faster news availability

More immediate/24-hour coverage, often making news more reactive and less in-depth.