Soc 100 - Exam 1

Sociology

The scientific study of human society, focusing on social structures, patterns, meanings, and interactions between individuals and institutions.

Sociological Imagination (C. Wright Mills)

The ability to connect personal experiences (“biography”) to larger social and historical forces (“history”), helping us “make the familiar strange” and question what seems natural.

Social Institutions

Networks or structures (like family, education, economy, law, religion) that organize society and shape the behavior of individuals within them.

Social Identity

How individuals define themselves in relation to the groups they are part of—or choose not to be part of. Examples: race, class, gender, religion.

Auguste Comte

Founder of sociology. Developed positivism, the belief that social behavior can be studied scientifically through logic and observation.

Karl Marx

Founded historical materialism—argued that class conflict (between bourgeoisie and proletariat) is the engine of social change.

Max Weber

Developed interpretive sociology, focusing on understanding meaning (Verstehen). Emphasized culture, religion, and ideas in shaping society.

Émile Durkheim

Founder of positivist sociology. Studied how social cohesion is maintained through the division of labor and collective norms.

Georg Simmel

Developed formal sociology, focusing on group size, numbers, and the forms of social interaction rather than content.

Chicago School

Early 20th-century American sociology centered at the University of Chicago; emphasized fieldwork and how social environments shape behavior.

Microsociology

Study of local, face-to-face interactions (e.g., families, classrooms, daily life). Methods: observation, interviews.

Macrosociology

Study of large-scale social systems (e.g., class structure, institutions, globalization). Methods: statistics, historical analysis.

Functionalism

The theory that all parts of society serve a purpose and contribute to social stability (Durkheim, Parsons).

Conflict Theory

Views society as composed of groups competing for scarce resources—rooted in Marx’s ideas of class conflict.

Symbolic Interactionism

A micro-level theory that focuses on symbols, meanings, and everyday interactions (Mead, Cooley, Goffman).

Feminist Theory

Focuses on gender inequality, patriarchy, and power dynamics between men and women.

Postmodernism

Questions universal truths and emphasizes that social reality is fragmented, fluid, and subjective.

Midrange Theory

Explains specific social phenomena (like crime rates or group dynamics) rather than attempting to explain all of society.

Research Methods

The standard rules and procedures sociologists follow to establish relationships between social elements and study the social world systematically.

Quantitative Methods

Research that collects numerical data or data that can be converted into numbers (e.g., surveys, statistics, experiments).

Qualitative Methods

Research that collects non-numerical data like interviews, observations, and case studies to capture meaning and context.

Deductive Approach

A research process that begins with a theory, forms a hypothesis, collects data, and then analyzes data to confirm or modify the theory.

Inductive Approach

A research process that begins with observations, identifies patterns, and builds a theory based on those findings.

Causation

A relationship where a change in one factor directly produces a change in another; requires correlation, time order, and ruling out alternatives.

Correlation

A connection or association between two variables that change together, without proving that one causes the other.

Independent Variable

The variable believed to cause change or influence another variable in an experiment or study.

Dependent Variable

The outcome variable that the researcher measures to see if it changes in response to another variable.

Hypothesis

A proposed relationship between variables; a testable statement derived from theory.

Null Hypothesis

A statement asserting there is no relationship between variables (used as a baseline for comparison).

Validity

The degree to which a study measures what it claims to measure.

Reliability

The consistency of results when a study is repeated under the same conditions.

Generalizability

The extent to which a study’s findings apply to larger populations beyond the studied sample.

Participant Observation

A qualitative method where the researcher immerses themselves in a social setting to observe behavior directly.

Survey Research

A method that uses questionnaires to gather data from a large group of people quickly and efficiently.

Interviews

A qualitative method that involves open-ended questioning to explore participants’ experiences and meanings.

Comparative Research

Research comparing two or more entities (like countries or groups) to identify differences and similarities.

Experimentation

A method that tests causal relationships by manipulating variables under controlled conditions.

Content Analysis

Systematic examination of media or text to identify patterns, themes, or meanings.

Historical Methods

Analyzing existing historical records or artifacts to study social processes over time.

Public Sociology

The practice of using sociological research to inform the public, promote awareness, and encourage social change.

Research Ethics

The standards researchers follow to protect participants from harm, ensure informed consent, and maintain confidentiality.

Informed Consent

The process of ensuring participants understand the study and agree voluntarily to participate.

Voluntary Participation

The principle that participants must freely choose to be part of a study without coercion or pressure.

Socialization

The process through which individuals internalize the values, beliefs, and norms of society and learn how to function within it.

Limits of Socialization

Socialization cannot explain everything; both biology and social interaction shape who we are.

Looking-Glass Self (Charles Cooley)

The idea that we develop a self-image based on how we imagine others see us; others act as a “mirror” for our self-perception.

George Herbert Mead’s Theory of Self

Mead said the self develops through stages: “I” (self as subject), “Me” (self as object), “Other” (awareness of others), and “Generalized Other” (understanding society’s expectations).

Generalized Other

An internalized sense of the expectations of others in a variety of settings, allowing us to function in society.

Agents of Socialization

Groups or contexts that teach us social norms and values: family, school, peers, media, and total institutions.

Total Institution

An institution (like prison or the military) that controls all aspects of daily life under one authority.

Resocialization

The process of replacing previously learned norms and values with new ones, often within a total institution.

Status

A recognizable social position that an individual occupies.

Ascribed Status

A social position assigned at birth, such as race, sex, or age.

Achieved Status

A social position gained through personal effort, such as occupation or education.

Master Status

A status that dominates all others and shapes a person’s identity (e.g., “mother,” “student,” “disabled”).

Role

The expected behaviors and duties associated with a given status.

Role Conflict

Conflict between roles associated with different statuses (e.g., student vs. employee).

Role Strain

Tension between roles within a single status (e.g., student torn between studying and socializing).

Gender Roles

Cultural expectations and norms associated with behavior based on gender.

Social Construction of Reality

The process by which people give meaning or value to ideas, objects, and events through social interactions.

Symbolic Interactionism

A theory that sees society as built on shared symbols and meanings that guide interaction.

Dramaturgical Theory (Erving Goffman)

The view that social life is like a theatrical performance where people manage impressions (“front stage” vs “backstage”).

Ethnomethodology

The study of how people make sense of the world and create social order through everyday interactions.

Breaching Experiments (Harold Garfinkel)

Experiments that break social norms to reveal the underlying rules of social life.

Internet and Social Interaction

The internet has created new forms of interaction without physical presence, changing communication, identity, and relationships.

Social Group

A collection of people who interact regularly and share a sense of belonging or identity.

Georg Simmel on Group Size

Simmel said the form of social interaction depends on group size; dyads and triads differ fundamentally.

Dyad

A group of two—most intimate and unstable form; if one leaves, the group ends.

Triad

A group of three—more stable, but introduces power dynamics.

Mediator

The member of a triad who resolves conflict between the other two.

Tertius Gaudens

The member of a triad who benefits from conflict between the other two.

Divide et Impera

The member of a triad who intentionally drives a wedge between the other two.

Asch Test

A conformity experiment showing that people will go along with group norms even if they believe they’re wrong.

Social Network

A set of relationships or ties that connect individuals to others.

Tie

A specific connection between two people in a network (e.g., friend, coworker).

Narrative

The overall story or sum of connections that link people together within a network.

Embeddedness

The degree to which social ties are reinforced through indirect connections.

Strength of Weak Ties (Granovetter)

The idea that weak ties (acquaintances) are valuable for gaining new information and opportunities.

Structural Hole

A gap between network clusters that can be bridged by an intermediary who connects them.

Social Capital

The information, knowledge, and connections that help individuals enter or gain power within networks; high social capital = strong community ties.

Organization

A social network with a common purpose and a defined boundary separating members from nonmembers.

Formal Organization

An organization with a structured hierarchy and established rules (e.g., school, business).

Informal Organization

An organization without formal rules or structures (e.g., friend group, local club).

Organizational Culture

The shared beliefs and behaviors within a social group or organization.

Organizational Structure

The way power and authority are arranged and distributed within an organization.

Institutional Isomorphism

The process that makes organizations in similar environments become alike (e.g., all colleges using grades).

Civic Engagement

Participation in community life and collective activities; considered to have declined in modern society.

Bowling Alone

Robert Putnam’s idea that people are less socially engaged even while participating in individual activities.

Social Stratification

The structured system of inequality among groups in society, based on class, status, or power.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau on Inequality

Argued that private property creates inequality and leads to social conflict.

Ferguson and Millar on Inequality

Scottish Enlightenment thinkers who saw inequality as beneficial because it encourages hard work and progress.

Ontological Equality

The belief that all people are created equal in the eyes of God; often used to justify inequality.

Equality of Opportunity

The idea that everyone has an equal chance to achieve success if judged by the same standards.

Equality of Condition

The idea that everyone should have an equal starting point in life; basis for policies like affirmative action.

Equality of Outcome

The idea that everyone should end up with the same rewards regardless of effort; linked to communism.

Social Mobility

The movement of individuals or groups between social classes or positions in a hierarchy.

Horizontal Mobility

Movement within the same social class (e.g., teacher becomes counselor).

Vertical Mobility

Movement up or down the social ladder (e.g., promotion or job loss).

Caste System

A system based on hereditary religious purity with no social mobility (e.g., India’s varna system).

Estate System

A politically based system with limited mobility, typical of feudal societies.