Cognition, Memory, and Problem-Solving: Key Psychology Concepts

Cognition

All the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

Metacognition

Thinking about one's thinking and monitoring cognitive processes

perceptual set

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing not another

Concept

A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

Prototype

The best or most typical example of a category

Schema

A mental framework that organizes and interprets information

Assimilation

Interpreting new information using existing schemas

Accommodation

Adapting schemas to incorporate new information

Algorithm

A step-by-step problem-solving method that guarantees a solution

Heuristic

A mental shortcut that allows quick judgments

Insight

A sudden realization of a problem's solution

Convergent thinking

Narrowing available problem solutions to determine the single best answer

Divergent thinking

Expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking

Functional fixedness

Inability to see objects as anything other than their usual function

Confirmation bias

Tendency to search for information that supports existing beliefs

Fixation

Inability to see a problem from a new perspective

Mental set

A tendency to approach problems using strategies that worked in the past

Availability heuristic

Judging the likelihood of events based on how easily examples come to mind

Representativeness heuristic

Judging the likelihood of events based on how closely they match a prototype

Overconfidence

The tendency to be more confident than correct

Belief perseverance

Maintaining beliefs despite evidence that contradicts them

Framing

The way an issue is presented affects decisions and judgments

Nudge

Framing choices in a way that encourages beneficial decisions

Memory

The persistence of learning over time through encoding, storage, and retrieval

Encoding

The process of getting information into memory

Storage

The process of retaining information over time

Retrieval

The process of accessing stored information

Sensory memory

The immediate, very brief recording of sensory information

Iconic memory

A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli

Echoic memory

A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli

Short-term memory

Activated memory that holds a few items briefly

Working memory

Active processing of information in short-term memory

Long-term memory

The relatively permanent and unlimited store of information

Explicit (declarative) memory

Conscious memory of facts and events

Semantic memory

Memory of facts and general knowledge

Episodic memory

Memory of personally experienced events

Implicit (nondeclarative) memory

Unconscious memory of skills and procedures

Procedural memory

Memory for how to perform skills and tasks

Prospective memory

Remembering to perform a planned action in the future

Retrospective memory

Memory of past events and information

Priming

Activation of associations in memory, making retrieval easier

Context-dependent memory

Improved recall when in the same environment as learning

State-dependent memory

Improved recall when in the same physical or emotional state

Mood-congruent memory

Tendency to recall memories that match current mood

Serial position effect

Tendency to recall best the first and last items in a list

Primacy effect

Better recall of the first items in a list

Recency effect

Better recall of the last items in a list

Encoding failure

Information never stored in long-term memory

Storage decay

Memory fading over time

Retrieval failure

Inability to access stored memories

Misinformation effect

False memories formed after exposure to misleading information

Source amnesia

Forgetting the source of information

Relearning

A measure of memory that assesses time saved when relearning material

Spacing effect

Distributed practice leads to better long-term retention

Distributed practice

Studying or practicing over spaced intervals

Massed practice

Studying or practicing in one long session

Testing effect

Enhanced memory after retrieving information rather than rereading it

Shallow processing

Encoding based on appearance or sound

Deep processing

Encoding based on meaning

Self-reference effect

Better recall of information related to oneself