American Government 202 - Study Guide 2

What is the difference between a federal, unitary, and confederated state? 

A federal state divides powers between regional and general leaders. A unitary state concentrates power into a single central government. Both are autonomous over jurisdiction, but they can combine to be a single political entity. 

What is the difference between dual and cooperative federalism? 

A dual federalism gives federal and local powers clear, defined spheres of power. Cooperative federalism makes federal and local powers share their authority and cooperate on policies.  

In the United States Constitution what powers are reserved solely to the federal government? 

Entering international relations (treaties, alliances, confederations, etc.), printing money, start tariffs, declare war,  

What is the purpose of the 10th Amendment? 

Congress cannot force states governments to pass certain pieces of legislation, known as “commandeering.” 

What is the difference between full time, hybrid, and part time state legislators? 

Full time legislators dedicate most of their time to the office, and they are paid so that they can live off it. Hybrid legislators spend about 2/3 of their time at office but aren’t paid enough to live off it. Part time legislators only spend up to half their time doing work and aren’t paid much. They have to have other sources of income to make a living.  

What is the purpose of term limits, and how many states have them?

They’re meant to reduce the potential for someone to gain too much power and not be un-seated. They increase turnover. 

What are the disparities in terms of race and gender in state legislators? 

Women and non-whites are underrepresented in all states. 

What are the responsibilities of state governors? 

They manage the state bureaucracy, set the state’s policy agenda, coordinate between governments, and manage crises in state.  

What are some of the arguments for and against electing state Supreme Court justices? 

For: Judges will be political anyways, so elections will provide accountability. The law should also follow the will of the people in democracy. Judges also may already have a record of decisions and can campaign on experience. 

Against: Judges are supposed to be independent from politics. They’ll also need to make unpopular decisions, and they shouldn’t make campaign promises or engage in fundraising. 

What is “Dillon’s Rule,” and how is it different from “Home Rule?” 

Dillon’s Rule states that municipalities are extensions of state governments; they cannot act autonomously unless such powers are granted to them by the state. Home Rule gives local governments some self-governance on local concerns without needing to get permission from the state. 

What are the types of local governments in the United States? 

Town Hall, Representative Town Hall, Mayor-Council, Manager-Council, Commission 

What are the forms of general-purpose municipalities in the United States? 

Counties, General purpose municipalities, School Boards, Special Districts 

In terms of demographics, who tends to be elected to municipal governments? 

Older, white, retired men. 

What is “public opinion” and how is it measured? 

Public opinion is collective preferences on matters relating to policy, politics, and government. It’s measured with political expressions, focus groups, or polling. 

What is “political socialization?” 

Political socialization is the process by which individuals learn and internalize political values, beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors. 

In media literacy, describe the importance of these concepts: source, interpretation, framing, and echo chamber.  

Source: The origin of the info, including the potential biases and motivations of the initial contributor 
Interpretation: The unique manner that consumers of media receive info 
Framing: The use of rhetorical devices, emotional messaging, and selection of facts to indicate to the consumers what is significant in the message and what they should value. 
Echo Chamber: the tendency of certain info, including facts and framing, to cycle within similar media sources. 

They’re crucial for understanding how information is presented and consumed. 

What are the types of “fake news?”  

Satire or parody, false connection, misleading content, false context, imposter content, manipulated content, fabricated content, and scientific denialism. 

Describe the different historical periods of journalism in the United States? 

• The Party Press Era: Printing Presses controlled by political factions due to high printing costs. High costs contributed to American Revolution because of the stamp act and the tax on paper implying an attack on political descent. 

• The Rise of Commercial Journalism: 1830s. Cost of printing decreased, commercial news started being published due to the new potential of it being profitable. News was still closely aligned with a political party or faction though. 

• Journalism and Industrial Society: Two new forms of journalism. Yellow journalism (mix of entertainment and news, sought attention through sensationalism) and muckraking journalism (engaged in investigative work to expose corruption within government and industries) 

What was the “Lippman-Dewey” debate? 

It was a debate between a social critic and philosopher. The social critic (Lippman) argued that democracy wasn’t possible because of mass media because hte public was not well informed and was easily manipulated. Decisions were best left to experts. The philosopher (Dewey) argued that democracy was still possible, but only with universal and robust education that trained people to be active citizens. 

What is the Chomsky-Herman model of media filters? 

It’s a list of five “filters” that shape the news and information from mass media. They go in order, systematically. Ownership, Advertising, Sourcing, Flak, Anti-communism/Fear. 

What does the American Constitution say about a free press? 

A free press acts as a fourth branch outside of the government that checks every other branch of the government. It is allowed to write whatever it feels and can petition the Government for a “redress of grievances.” 

What is the FCC and how does it relate to mass media? 

The FCC is an independent federal agency that regulates communication radio, TV, satellite, and cable. Their mission is to make communication widely available and to ensure fair competition in markets. They have very limited power to regulate speech, only really stopping obscenity and other very narrow areas. It mostly regulates the “rules of the road” in terms of access. 

How did the Supreme Court of the United States decide the following cases: Near v. Minnesota (1931), New York Times Co. v. Sullivan (1964), Branzburg v. Hayes (1971), New York Times Co. v. United States (1971), and Murthy v. Missouri (2024)?   

• Near v. Minnesota: The 1^st Amendment prohibits the government from exercising “prior restraint” against a news outlet. The government can’t preemptively declare a message illegal and prohibit its publication. 

• NYT v. Sullivan: This set the guidelines for what slander is. You are only guilty of slander if you: a. say something false, b. cause actual harm to the target, c. say it maliciously or with a reckless disregard for the truth, and d. additional scrutiny should be applied if the victim is a private instead of a public figure (people who’s lives are out there should be given more consideration because it’s easier for people to slander them). 

• Branzburg v. Hayes: The 1^st Amendment didn’t give a constitutional right to journalists to protect their sources. 

• NYT v US: Found the Nixon administration used “prior restraint” against the New York Times to prevent it from publishing sections of the Pentagon Paper. It made it harder (but not impossible) for a president to suspend publication of info, even if it’s classified. The ruling narrowly limited the use of “national security” as a reason to censor the press. 

• Murthy v. Missouri: The federal government can contact social media companies and urge them (jawboning) to remove posts or content it finds objectionable. However, it cannot explicitly threaten those companies. It can only express its wishes regarding content. 

What is Section 230 of the Communications Decency Act of 1996 and how does it relate to the governing of the internet? 

Basically, it makes social media companies that allow citizens to post content on the website not the publishers of that content. They cannot be held responsible for what people post there as long as they make “good faith” efforts to monitor objectionable content. However, hate comments and things that people find offensive aren’t inherently “objectional,” and they don’t make it clear what that is. Social media websites can monitor any behavior or comments because they’re considered private forums.  
TLDR: Social media websites aren’t publishers when it comes to the liability of their content, however they are publishers if they begin to make a profit off of that content. 

What is partisanship, and how does it impact American politics? 

Partisanship is a group-based, shared identity that leads to identification and association with a party to help a party’s cause. It allows people to obtain funding and resources for running a campaign. 

What are the various periods of party alignment in the United States? 

• Federalists/Anti-federalists 

• Jacksonian Democracy 

• Civil War and Reconstruction 

• Progressive Era 

• New Deal Era 

• Neoliberal Era 

• Post-Neoliberal? 

What is the difference between the “party leaders” and “charismatic candidates” theories of political parties? 

• “Party leaders” theory hypothesizes that political parties are chosen by their leadership. Candidates are chosen by party leaders and supported. Without party leader support, they have no hope of winning office. 

• “Charismatic candidates” theory hypothesizes that political parties are essentially vessels for charismatic candidates to get elected. Candidates choose their party and relocate resources to get their parties stronger, and subsequently get power to get them elected. They believe that candidates pick the parties most likely to get them elected; party platforms are mostly inconsequential.  

What is Duverger’s law and how does it explain America’s two-party system? 

Duverger’s law is a theory that claims that politics tends to gravitate towards a dual party system. People would rather vote for someone they partially agree with and win, compared to one they fully agree with but lose.  

What is the difference between the “median voter” and the “mobilized based” theories of winning elections? 

• The median voter theory predicts that people vote for the candidate closest to their preference. It assumes people vote ideologically and want a candidate closest to their values. Therefore, candidates should appeal to the median voter in primary and ideological center in general. 

• The mobilized based theory predicts that to win an election, people should campaign to their “core constituency.” The core constituency is the strongest and most vocal supporters. This theory assumes people are less rational in their ideological commitments, saying that people would rather not vote than compromise. It’s suggested that people should campaign to their base during the primary, and double down on commitments during the general election to inspire mobilization.  

What is “gerrymandering” and how is it practiced? 

Gerrymandering is the manipulation of electoral boundaries to favor one party or class. Political or electoral boundaries are moved, basically allowing them to choose their voters. 

What does the American Constitution say about the right to vote and what are the major sections that deal with voting?  

Nothing. Article 1 Section 4, Article 4 Section 4, 14^th and 15^th amendment. They can alter when or where the senators are chosen, but they can’t affect how it actually gets chosen. 

What is the significance of the Voting Rights Act of 1965? 

It’s the most comprehensive voting legislation to come out of the Civil Rights Revolution. 

How did the Supreme Court of the United States decide the following cases: United States v. Reese (1876), Wesberry v. Sanders (1964), Buckley v. Valeo (1974) Shaw v. Reno (1993), Citizens United v. FEC (2010), and Shelby County v. Holder (2013)  

• US vs Reese: People can’t be restricted from voting due to color, race, or previous conditions of servitude. However, the Constitution didn’t explicitly give a right to vote to anyone, states had the freedom to regulate voting as they saw fit.  

• Wesberry v. Sanders: Congressional districts have to be equally proportioned, and that the 14^th Amendment meant all votes should be weighted equally. 

• Buckley v. Valeo: Invalidated sections of Federal Election Campaign Act of 1971 that put limits on campaign expendures 

• Shaw v. Reno: Redistricting based on race was a violation of the equal protection clause of the 14^th amendment.  

• Citizens United v. FEC: Campaign spending is protected by the 1^st Amendment 

• Shelby County v. Holder: Preclearance (states who had a history of discrimination had to get permission from the attorney general before changing their voter laws) is struck down.

What are the different types of interest groups? 

• Membership Organizations 

• Enterprises 

• Associations 

How are interest groups society’s intermediaries? 

They connect the public to political institutions 

What are the main points of Olson’s argument in “The Logic of Collective Action?” 

Any group trying to establish public good is at risk of free riding. To combat that, they should offer incentives or use coercion. If incentives and coercion are low, there is more free riding. Small groups with high resources have an advantage over large groups with low resources. 

What types of coercive mechanisms or incentives can interest groups use? 

• Purposive incentive (Promise of success) 

• Solidaristic incentive (societal rewards with identification) 

• Material incentive (External rewards/perks to members  

• Purposive coercion (Promise of opposition winning) 

• Exclusion coercion (Social exclusion for not identifying) 

What was the behavioralist turn in political science? 

An approach to political science that believes what matters to understanding fields are phenomenon that are independently observable and quantifiable (Studying politics begins with analyzing public opinion) 

What is a “polyarchy,” and how is it different from a democracy? 

Political power in the US operates through a system of competing interest groups, where no one group or type of group can maintain monopoly of power 

What is the difference between a “grassroots” movement and an “astroturf” movement? 

Grassroots campaigns use people to drive a movement, while astroturfing creates online support  

What is the difference between “direct” and “indirect” lobbying? 

• Direct: Attempts to influence lawmakers 

• Indirect: Influences public, hoping they would influence 

What is the difference between “inside” and “outside” strategies for lobbying? 

• Inside lobbying involves giving lawmakers information and directly interacting with them 

• Outside lobbying relies on creating public opinion to pressure lawmakers 

How do lobbyists act as organized intermediaries between the public and lawmakers? 

They try to provide info and research to lawmakers for them and do their job for them. They reach out to lawmakers to convince them about the public opinion. 

What is the importance of United States v. Harris (1954)? 

It upheld the requirement that lobbyists have to register, but also created loopholes for it. 

How has each of these laws attempted to regulate lobbying: Federal Regulation of Lobbying Act of 1946, the Ethics in Government Act of 1978, the Lobbying Disclosure Act of 1995, and the Honest Leadership and Open Government Act of 2007? 

• Federal Regulation of Lobbying Act of 1946: Defined what a “professional lobbyist,” required registration and group disclosure 

• Ethics in Government Act of 1978: Creates mandatory financial disclosure for financial and employment history of public employees. Restricts public employees from becoming lobbyists for a period of time, created US office of Independent Council to investigate corruption among federal employees. 

• Lobbying Disclosure Act of 1995: Closed many loopholes, defines what a lobbyist is, banned certain gift-giving, established fines 

• Honest Leadership and Open Government Act of 2007: Put more requirements on fund disclosure, more restrictions on gifts, requires disclosure of all earmarks/pork on bills