policing

CONTEMPORARY POLICE WORK

Unique and complex role in criminal justice system
• Can arrest, detain, and use lethal force
• Highly trained, multiskilled professionals
• Often involves
– restoring order
– developing relationships
– providing reassurances
– conducting outreach to communities
– First responder to accidents etc.

Sovereignty

is the power to make law and exercise legitimate violence including inflicting death
e.g. police authority to use lethal force; violence of law in civil and political death of incarceration

Biopolitics

The ways in which the state and society try to order and optimize social and health relations
e.g. public hospitals and healthcare, vaccinations, education, sanitation, water supplies, infrastructure etc.
E.g. Police as first responders in accidents, traffic control

Police routinely enact both

sovereign and biopolitical functions sometimes during the same call such as using force during an arrest then providing first aid

IMAGE AND REALITY OF POLICE

– dangerous
– intriguing
– exciting
– isolating
– lonely

Policing

activities of any individual or organization acting legally on behalf of public or private organizations or persons to maintain security or social order
• Includes both public and private
• Private police now have some policing
authority, with limited use of force

Warrior role

views police’s primary role as to enforce the law through exercise of authority

Guardian role

views police’s primary role as peacekeeping and protection of the community

Thomas Hobbes (The Leviathan 1651) argued that:

Without a sovereign in the state of nature, individuals are roughly equal in power and so live in continual fear in a war of all against all.
So a strong sovereign is needed to impose order and allow civilization including commerce, education, culture, transportation etc.

Sovereign is Absolute

The sovereign’s actions are not to be challenged and were always justified, for bad government was better than no government. Whereas John Locke considered rebellion against unjust rulers was justified.

Hume: Might makes right:

“‘Twas by the sword, therefore, that every emperor acquired, as well as defended, his right; and we must ...allow, that the right of the stronger, in public affairs, is to be received as legitimate, and authorized by morality, when not opposed by any other title’” (Hume 1969: 610).

Social contract perspective

police as a politically neutral force that
enforces the law and protects the public
– power of police and ability to use force justified under social contract vision
– mainstream view of police as protective force against crime and disorder

Radical perspective

police represent a repressive force instrumental in maintenance of an unjust social system
– police support government, which supports interests of ruling class
– Canadian society is a “police state,” evidenced by historical examples of police used by the government to “pacify” the Canadian west
– recent G20 protests in Toronto, 2010, questioned neutrality of police

police as a hunting institution

“The police is a hunting institution, the state’s arm for pursuit, entrusted by it with tracking, arresting, and imprisoning” (Chamayou, 2012)
Police routinely enact decision-making over who is a friend and who is an enemy of the state

Theory of the Hunted

“Every hunt is accompanied by a theory of its prey that explains why, by virtue of what difference, of what distinction, some men can be hunted and others not.
The history of man-hunting is thus a history not only of the techniques of tracking and capture but also of procedures of exclusion, of lines of demarcation drawn within the human community in order to define the humans who can be hunted.” (Chamayou 2012)

Political policing

When police are used by governments to conduct surveillance on groups thought to be a threat to the country’s security. Examples include:
• Red Scare. 1917-20 and again 1947-59, Canadian and American police agencies spied on communist activists and organizations

POLICE WORK IN A DEMOCRATIC SOCIETY

Separation of power between police and government
– ensures police are not used in a partisan way • Separation of roles between courts and
police
– police have direct impact on rights and freedoms of citizens
– only courts can decide on guilt or innocence
• Police must protect both public order and individual rights
• Police get “caught in the middle” between government interests and public protest
• What is acceptable police political expression as individuals and as organizations? E.g. some active and ex-police officers supported the Convoy occupation of downtown Ottawa.

Police and Civic Religion

Civic Religion involves the presence of the sacred in secularized country/state (Robert N. Bellah 1967)
O’Dea and O’Dea Aviad (1983) suggest that religion
(1) (2)
(3) (4)
(5) (6)
“provides support, consolation, and reconciliation;
offers a transcendental relationship that promotes security;
sacralizes norms and values of established society;
provides standards for critically examining established norms;
performs important identity functions; and
aids passage through the life cycle. Functional analysis also explores ways in which religion is dysfunctional in a social order.” (Kurtz 2015)

Policing as Revered/Theological Liminal State

• Like military service personnel, police are held in reverence because of risking their lives and sometimes dying in the line of duty in order to serve and protect others
• Police’s culture of the Thin Blue Line is similarly constructed as the police saw the last line against the forces of chaos. Or also when police “cross the line” into illegality or corruption. The idea of police as part of society yet separate from civilians as those who enforce the law and protect civilian
• Police therefore take on a much more mythologized roles in society, which is reflected in popular culture, films, music, etc.

The Battle of Vimy Ridge

“The capture of Vimy was more than just an important battlefield victory. For the first time all four Canadian divisions attacked together: men from all regions of Canada were present at the battle. Brigadier-General A.E. Ross declared after the war, "in those few minutes I witnessed the birth of a nation.””

Durkheim on the Taboo of Central
Beliefs

“If a belief is unanimously shared by a people, then it is forbidden to touch it, that is to say, to deny or to contest it. Now the prohibition of criticism is an interdiction like the others and proves the presence of something sacred.” (Durkheim, 2008:213)

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“The totem secret, the collective group taboo, is the knowledge that society depends on the death of its own members at the hands of the group.” (Ingle and Marvin, 1999:2)

Commercial Nationalism, Militarism, Sovereignty and the Cult of the Sacred Dead

Remembrance Day. Part of national civic religion
– World War I is viewed in Canadian nationalist narratives as birth of a nation on the battlefields of Europe.

Blood Sacrifice and the Nation

“At the behest of the group, the lifeblood of the community members must be shed. Group solidarity, or sentiment, flows from the value of this sacrifice.
The totem god of society, which turns out to be society itself, cannot do without its worshippers any more than its worshippers can do without the god of society.
It must possess and consume, it must eat its worshippers to live. This is the totem secret and its greatest taboo.” (Marvin and Ingles, 1999:4)

The Sacred and the Limits of Society

Members of the totem group travel to the limits of what is familiar and known. They reach the borders, an area of confusion where identities are exchanged between insiders and outsiders, and cross over.
The crossing is violence and blood—sacrificial in a word. This dramatic encounter with death marks the exact border of the community.
The act of crossing establishes a clear contrast between who is inside and who is outside the community. Border crossers become outsiders dead to the community.”

Policing as Revered/Theological Liminal State

• police are held in reverence because of risking their lives and sometimes dying in the line of duty in order to serve and protect others

• Police’s culture of the Thin Blue Line is similarly constructed as the police saw the last line against the forces of chaos. Or also when police “cross the line” into illegality or corruption. The idea of police as part of society yet separate from civilians as those who enforce the law and protect civilian

• Police therefore take on a much more mythologized roles in society, which is reflected in popular culture, films, music, etc.

Canada’s Birth in War: April 9 1917
The Battle of Vimy Ridge

“The capture of Vimy was more than just an important battlefield victory. For the first time all four Canadian divisions attacked together.

Ontario’s Highway Memorials for Fallen
Police Officers

We must never forget the contribution of those men and women to whom we owe so much. As a gesture of our respect, we seek to honour them by permitting the Legislature to name highway bridges and other structures in their memory.

POLICE IN THE CANADIAN WEST

• Emerged in mid-to-late 1800s
• Most communities continued to police
themselves
• Indigenous populations had own systems
– mostly replaced by British law

ORIGINS AND EXPANSION OF RCMP

• North-West Mounted Police 1873 – founded to police “Rupert’s Land”
– military-style rather than Peel’s model
• Became Royal NWMP in 1904 then RCMP in 1920; reasons for creation are debated
– preserve peace in the Canadian West – protect Aboriginals
– establish political sovereignty

THE RCMP IN THE REMOTE NORTH

• Posted to remote Indigenous and Inuit

communities

• Sent due to concerns about U.S. interest in land, pressure from gold-trading companies and “levies” needed by government

• Presence helped establish sovereignty in eastern Arctic

THE RCMP: IMAGE AND REALITY

• Image:

– national symbol

– immortalized in U.S., Europe in books and early motion pictures

• 600+ Hollywood movies with a Mountie hero! – square-jawed, stoic, strong and polite

THE RCMP: IMAGE AND REALITY

• Reality:

– many early internal difficulties

– high rates of desertion, bad conduct

– resistance and hostility toward the RCMP

– seen as political tool of oppression by some

– conflicts arose between Mounties and municipal forces

Liberal Subjects’ Hierarchy of

Qualification and Exclusion

Group A: those who have attained capacities for autonomy, including the practice of exercising 'ethical despotism' upon themselves where necessary;

Group B: those who need assistance to maintain capacities for autonomy as in the case of the social citizen under T.H. Marshall's welfare state and the job-ready' of contemporary work fare;

Group C: those who are potentially capable of exercising liberal autonomy but who are yet to be trained in the habits and capacities to do so;

Group D: those who, having reached maturity of age, are for one reason or another not yet or no longer able to exercise their own autonomy or act in their own best interests;

Group E: There is of course a liberal government of those who disrupt or simply get in the way of the establishment and maintenance of a liberal legal and political order inside the state or in the international domain. (Mitchell Dean, 2010:120)

Argumentation Syllogism: Police Must

Govern “Good” Flows Versus “Bad” Flows

Syllogisms are forms of arguments

Universal Premise: Security is required to ensure productive relations within society

Particular Premise: Police have responsibility to ensure social stability and productive relations

Conclusion: police must ensure productive good flows are able to circulate while bad flows are reduced or eliminated

NWMP as Paramilitary Force

In the early 1870s a NWMP official, T.M. Longstreth said that the USA "had spent $20,000,000 that year on exterminating her savages alone. It was obvious that Canada's Indians must be less expensively subdued.”

Paramilitary. E.g. had cannons for use against rebellions

1873 Act founded the North West Mounted Police in reaction to the 1870 Metis Rebellion and 1873 Cypress Hill Massacre

Modelled on Royal Irish Constabulary

To govern Aboriginal population and assert Canadian sovereignty

“The NWMP were given the right to arrest, prosecute,

judge, sentence and confine persons residing in the

Northwest Territories” (Jefferson, 1978).

Surveillance and Intelligence

“...Foucault explains how powers of rule are practised through the governance of circulations. He describes these effects of circulation as

"a matter of organizing circulation, eliminating its dangerous elements, making a division between good and bad circulation, and maximizing the good circulation by diminishing the bad" (2007,18).

Foucault details how Le Maitre's theory of circulation was largely focussed on developing an ideal governing strategy for emerging industrial cities of Europe. This notion of regulating conduct based on the management of good/bad circulations is also applicable to colonial territories in the midst of being transformed through processes of "liberal order-making" (Neocleous 2008).” (Monaghan 2013:12

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Indian Agents as Local Petty Sovereigns

The Indian Agent had extensive local powers Indian Agent had extensive local powers

Control Movement: used pass system that ran from 1885 to WW2 – conducted local surveillance

\- Control movement, particularly to deter political activities

\- Passes enforced by NWMP

\- No pass could lead to prosecution under Vagrancy Act

Judicial: the powers of arrest and try lesser offences

Control of Band Councils: Approval of band council members and band decisions through his control of government funding

Police as Petty Sovereigns: Exercising Discretionary Power

• Police discretionary power as the routine micro- enactment of sovereignty

• Police choose who and what to enforce the law over and how

– Backed by the monopoly of legitimate violent force, including inflicting injury and killing

• Police patrols are a form of hunt

• With regards to Indigenous peoples, RCMP and other police forces viewed as settler colonial entities

Discretionary Contexts

Scope – decisions about “... whether a particular issue that presents itself to police is one with which their involvement is appropriate‟;

Interpretation – decisions about “... whether particular actions are in violation of the law‟;

Priority – decisions about “how to allocate ... \*their+ time and resources‟; and

Tactics – decisions about “the tactics they employ in resolving the situations that confront them” (Kleinig, 2008:73-76; quoted in Crehan, 2011:4).

THE RCMP AND POLITICAL DISSENT

• RCMP has been used by government:

• To quell labour unrest

– 1919 Winnipeg General Strike – 1930 Estevan Riot, Sask.

• For surveillance on university campuses – left-wing student organizations 1960s

– abortion caravan from Vancouver 1970s

• Illegal activities and deception during

October Crisis in Quebec 1970 and 1973 – electronic surveillance

– illegal opening of mail

• McDonald Commission resulted in creation of CSIS

Operation PROFUNC: 1950s to 1980, plans for mass arrests and internment of “enemies of the Canadian state”

– related to communism

POLICING MORALITY

• Police enforced moral codes

• Used “national security” as a tool to

wage war on citizens

• 1950s–1990s: surveillance, interrogation, and harassment of gays and lesbians

– police services helped to criminalize homosexuality

England’s Buggery Act of 1533

An Acte for the punishment of the vice of Buggerie” enacted in 1533. Similar laws in North American colonies

– considered crime against God and nature

– penalty of death and confiscation of all lands and property, however, the death penalty provision was rarely carried out and was removed in late 1800s

“Gross Indecency” became term for crime of sex acts between men

Imprisonment remained until law ended in 1967

Canada’s Prohibition on LTBTQ+

• Before 1867, same-sex relations in Canada were potentially punishable by death though no one was executed, though many imprisoned

• 1868 Criminal Code termed same-sex relations as “act of gross indecency”with frequent severe jail sentences and corporal punishment such as flogging

• 1969 Bill C-150 decriminalized same-sex relations between two consenting adults in private.

• However, prosecutions of “indecent acts”, “common bawdy house” and similar laws continued against people using bathhouses and gay bars

• Various laws still used against LGBTQ2S

– https://www.ourcommons.ca/Content/Committee/421/JUST/Brief/BR10002313/br- external/HooperTom-e.pdf

Persecution of Gays and Lesbians in Canada’s Government

• In 1950s, during early Cold War, gays and lesbians in civil service and military were considered security risk for potential communist sympathies or as targets for blackmail by Russian spies

• RCMP began investigations of suspected gays and lesbians in civil service, RCMP and military during 1950s and 1960s

– Somesuspectsweresubjectedtointerrogationduringwhichtheywere shown erotic images and their pupil and other physical responses was measured, a pseudoscientific process since discredited

– Thousandslosttheirjobs

Persecutioninmilitarycontinueduntil1992,whenacourtdecisionended

official discrimination

• In 2017 Trudeau government issued official apology and $110 million in compensation to victims

• https://www.tvo.org/video/documentaries/the-fruit-machine

1969 Stonewall Inn Uprising

1969, June 28-July 1 in New York City

Series of confrontations between LGBTQ community members and New York City police

The Stonewall Inn was Mafia controlled – Paid bribes to police

– Wealthy patrons were regularly blackmailed, poor sanitation etc.

During a NYC police raid of the Stonewall Inn violence began that quickly escalated as LGBTQ fought back

Gay Liberation Movement, a national organization was founded in aftermath, with public events organized in 1970 for the first anniversary

Has become mythologized but roots of LGBTQ activism predate it \[7 min\] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GjRv7dJTync#

Defining the Modern State

A classic definition made by Max Weber in “Economy and Society”

“The primary formal characteristics of the modern state are as follows:

It possesses an administrative and legal order subject to change by legislation, to which the organized activities of the administrative staff, which are also controlled by regulations, are oriented.

This system of order claims binding authority, not only over the members of the state, the citizens, most of whom have obtained membership by birth, but also to a very large extent over all action taking place in the area of its jurisdiction.

It is thus a compulsory organization with a territorial basis.

Furthermore, today, the use of force is regarded as legitimate only so far as it is either permitted by the state or prescribed by it.” (Weber 1978, 56; quoted in Dean and Villadsen 2016, 20)

Violence Work

Seigel (2018) argues against “myths”of policing:

– asserts policing is not very dangerous

“agriculture, transportation and mining” have higher numbers of fatalities

– What is considered crime is contentious. Pollution, financial fraud (white-collar crime) inflict much higher social costs and damage but do not receive police attention compared to street crime

– much of policing is not criminal law enforcement

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Seigel argues common views of policing involve, “mythologies, claims presented as natural but are actually deeply ideological”

“First myth: police are civilian, not military.”

Second: they are public, not private, that is, state (government) rather than market agents.

Third: they are local; they work for municipal or state bodies, never leaving national territory.

Simple as these notions may appear, they are actually pointed political arguments, crying out for response. (Seigel 2018, 18)

Pacification and Capitalism

Comes from counterinsurgency warfare and colonialism.

–accumulation: capitalism relies upon “productive” social relations that ensure return on investment of capital

Pacification: imperialism and colonialism involves the use of violence to impose and sustain such productive relations

–by late 1800s, European empires and European settler states controlled much of the world creating a linked global capitalist system

– pacification campaigns were sustained by colonial powers to violently crush local resistance

– colonizers forcibly reorganize Indigenous societies, e.g. Residential Schools, reservations, police surveillance

– theorists argue for a continuum of war-police-accumulation in which

NWMP as Paramilitary

NWMP as paramilitary force combining policing and military functions

– founded in 1873

– modeled on Royal Irish Constabulary (Ireland was a British colony at the time)

– trained in infantry tactics

– possessed cannons, mortars and later Gatling guns which are military weapons

– enforce Canadian sovereignty

– suppress the 1885 Métis rebellion

“RCMP and Military Connections”

According to an RCMP webpage: “The RCMP has a proud military heritage” and it lists the following conflicts:

1885 NorthWest Rebellion

1899-1902. Boer war in South Africa; skilled in counterinsurgency against Boers

1914-1918. World War I. some thought in regular forces, others used in prevention of sabotage, monitoring of enemy aliens (German/Austrian immigrants)

1918-1919. Russian Civil War. Canadian Siberian Expeditionary Force. Canadian police among over 4000 soldiers in Vladivostok on the Pacific Ocean.

1939-45. RCMP as military police during World War II

1989 onwards. Deployed in peacekeeping missions including Namibia,

NWMP in Boer War (1899-1902)

“In all, 256 officers and men were granted leave from the NWMP in order to serve in South Africa during the war.

The majority of them had returned to active police duty in Canada by 1901 but some, including Sam Steele, stayed behind in South Africa to assist the newly formed South African Constabulary.

Created in August 1900 and lead by Major-General Robert Baden-Powell, famous leader of the besieged garrison at Mafeking, the South African Constabulary was a para-military force which was created to police the conquered Boer republics.”

Colonial and Social Context

\-- Colonization of Taiwan began in 1624 and has involved

a succession of the Dutch (1624-1662), Spanish

(1626-1642), Ming Loyalist Koxinga (1662-1683), Ching

Dynasty (1683-1895), Japanese empire (1895-1945) and the ‏)American backed KMT police state (1945-1980s

\-- Now Taiwan is a liberal democratic settler dominated state

\-- About 2.2% or 500,000 of Taiwan's population of 23 million; a similar proportion of Aboriginal peoples as Australia.

\-- Today, Aboriginal household incomes are some 40 percent of settlers

\-- Only 9 percent of Aboriginal children speak an Aboriginal language fluently

\-- Some progress in Aboriginal rights such as 2005 Aboriginal Basic Law



Transnational Policing RCMP

Liaison officers work in Asia-Pacific region, Europe, and America

• Bridge between foreign and Canadian police forces

• Assist in cross-national investigations

Transnational Policing

Growing international trade and investment

\- International cooperation organization first suggested in 1914

– organized crime networks – human trafficking

– drug trafficking and money laundering

– Financial crimes: money-laundering and tax avoidance – Weapons smuggling

– endangered species

Controlling Flows

– numerous borders within borders

– transport systems air, bus, train or ships

– US government Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) agency raids on migrants

–borders in depth – US Border Patrol has a 100 mile border zone within which they have extended search and seizure powers. E.g. buses are routinely stopped to check for undocumented migrants

\- Airports and entry points in European Union

The Schengen Zone

• 26 Countries of European Union

– No visa required to travel and live throughout the region

– Founded in 1985

Windsor Security Agencies

RCMP

Windsor Police Service

Canadian Security Intelligence Service Ontario Provincial Police

Canadian Border Services Agency

Canadian Forces

– U.S. Coast Guard under Shiprider program

\- Also US Customs at a number of Canadian airports including Toronto, Vancouver and Calgary

Federal, Provincial and Local Police

Cooperation

Update: RCMP search warrants in the Leamington area

(Windsor, Ontario – July 29th, 2016) –A 2 year joint investigation by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) and Canada Border Services Agency (CBSA) into the importation and trafficking of cocaine was concluded yesterday which resulted in arrests of individuals from the Leamington area. These individuals were involved in the importation and subsequent distribution of cocaine.

The evidence gathered revealed a criminal group moving large amounts of cocaine from Mexico into Canada. During the course of the investigation, police seized over two kilograms of cocaine as well as identified sophisticated concealment methods which enabled the cocaine shipments to cross international borders undetected.

On Thursday, July 28th, the RCMP along with members of CBSA,

Essex County OPP, and Chatham-Kent Police Service executed

several search warrants in the Leamington area http://www.rcmp-grc.gc.ca/on/news-nouvelles/2016/16-07-2

Royal Canadian Mounted Police

“The “O” Division RCMP is responsible for federal policing in Ontario and has primary law enforcement authority in federal matters.

With a focus on Serious and Organized Crime, Financial Crime, and National Security, the “O” Division RCMP is on the water, in the air, and at work across the province towards a safe and secure Canada.”

Network not the State

Security as management of (dis)ease

• Security networks exceed the state

– E.g. US Drug Enforcement Agency in Latin America

– US Coast Guard in Caribbean region

– Shiprider Program between RCMP and US Coast

Guard

• State as unit of analysis is too restricted of a concept

Shiprider

Integrated cross-border policing.

\- Patrol vessels carry police officers from both the USA and Canada.

\- This arrangement allows cross-border

pursuits and patrol activities

http://www.rcmp-grc.gc.ca/ibet-eipf/shiprider-video-eng.htm

http://windsor.ctvnews.ca/governor-general-boards-shiprider-in-detroit-1.2352500#

https://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/rsrcs/pblctns/frmwrk-grmnt-ntgrtd-crss- brdr/index-en.aspx

Five Eyes

Intelligence agencies from: US, UK, Canada, Australia

and New Zealand

– Largely beyond government scrutiny

• Began after World War II, part of Cold War against Russians

32\.

•

After Cold War, with rise of Internet found new enemies terrorism, extremism

– after 9/11, unlimited surveillance – still China and Russia etc.

– disputes over use of Huawei Internet and telecom equipment – Russian information warfare against US elections

Five Eyes Law Enforcement Group

“FBI chairs the Five Eyes Law Enforcement Group, or FELEG, which is comprised of members from the Drug Enforcement Administration, Homeland Security Investigations, and the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, and Canada.”

• “The FELEG formed working groups from shared common threats including organized crime, money laundering, the Going Dark \[encryption\] problem, and cyber crime. The working groups plan and conduct intelligence-driven joint operations on a global scale.”

• https://www.fbi.gov/audio-repository/news-podcasts-thisweek-the-five- eyes-law-enforcement-group-and-the-future-of-crime-fighting.mp3/view

Canadian Security Intelligence Service

Have an office in Windsor.

“CSIS collects and analyzes threat-related information, which is typically disseminated to government partners though intelligence reports and other intelligence products.

Key threats include terrorism, the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, espionage, foreign interference and cyber-tampering affecting critical infrastructure. CSIS programs are proactive and pre- emptive.” https://www.csis-scrs.gc.ca/bts/role-en.php

Stanford Prison Experiments and Abu Ghraib Prison

The US military invaded Iraq in March 2003 by May 2003 the Iraqi military was defeated

\- An insurgency began, the US imprisoned thousands of Iraqis

\- Abu Ghraid Prison near Baghdad was site of extensive torture and abuse by American reserve units, military police and CIA officials from Fall 2003 to Spring of 2004.

\- Led to a major scandal when photos of abuses emerged

\- These events have been compared to Stanford Prison Experiments

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sZwfNs1pqG0

Was Abu Ghraib An

Aberration?

In 2002, the US government legally authorized torture of terror suspects

CIA ran a series of secret prisons around the world

For example, Maher Arar, a Syrian-Canadian was arrested at JFK Airport in the US and sent to Syria where he was tortured for 10 months.

Borders Enact Cultural Values

Borders are not neutral technical barriers. Rather borders are highly political and cultural: – contested

– crucial points of sovereign control

– spaces of radical difference depending upon social class, racial, ethnic, religious, cultural, economic and political identity

International policing and peacekeeping

• RCMP can be deployed for international peacekeeping activities

– Sierra Leone, Afghanistan, Haiti, e.g. International policing and peacekeeping

• Function as technical advisers for local police

• Lack of training for officers on missions

• Lack of performance measurements

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Food Supply Chains

Production chains can span several countries

\- this allows opportunities for fraud by substitution of low-priced for high- priced ingredient

\- Mislabelling of origin - Old ingredients

\- Substandard quality

Economically motivated adulteration

aka Counterfeit Food

• Olive Oil: Frequently adulterated with cheaper oils

• Fish: CBC 2013 found 30 of 150 fish samples mislabelled

• Honey: Stretched by using corn syrup

• Spices: bulked up with ground up nut shells

• Organic produce: substitute non-organic produce

• Mislabelled: E.g. Mucci Farms of Kingsville fined for selling Mexican peppers as Ontario grown

• In March, Interpol and Europol announced the largest-ever seizure of fraudulent food.

– Theinvestigation,dubbedOperationOpsonV,foundalmostninetonnesof sugar laced with fertilizer in Sudan (counterfeit of a well-known brand), more than 85 tonnes of olives in Italy "painted" with a copper sulphate solution to enhance the colour, three factories in Greece each producing thousands of bottles of counterfeit brand-name alcohol, and in Zambia, "modified" expiration dates on cartons of diet powder drinks.

– https://www.theglobeandmail.com/life/food-and-wine/food-trends/fighting-food-fraud-canada-is-playing- catch-up-in-a-war-against-theunknown/article31098377/

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t6R-8ICyv7M&spfreload=5

2013 Horse Meat Scandal

• Irish government agency uncovered during random tests of consumer products

– Millions of packages of prepared foods recalled

• One supply chain: 750 tons of Romanian horse meat was relabeled as beef by French meat processor, Spanghero

• Meat then processed into hamburger patties, frozen lasagna and so on

• Trial finally began in early 2019 with several Spanghero management charged with fraud

WHAT ARE ETHICS?

– how behaviour is perceived as right or wrong
– police officers are required to adhere to a

code of ethics

• Recorded in acts, policy document, manuals

• Includes integrity, decision making, fairness,

impartiality, upholding of rule of law, etc.

ETHICAL DILEMMAS

• Situation where a person has to make a decision/take a course of action in the face of conflicting ethical principles

• Likely to arise in policing

– relates to discretion and authority

• Police may also see unethical behaviour among their own

• E.g. A police officer works in a small town and stops a car that is driving erratically late at night. It is their friend who is intoxicated so they let them go.

• What if the friend was a civilian versus the friend being a

fellow police officer?

Organization Culture

Police as paramilitary in cultural values and norms, language and training

– strict adherence to rules and regulations

– like military, strong emphasis on group

solidarity over individualism

– those viewed as weak subject to bullying and ostracized

TYPES OF POLICE MISCONDUCT

• Noble cause corruption: view by officers that the ends justify the means (misconduct)

• Testilying: officers lying under oath in court

• Backfilling: authors add entries to their notes at a later time

TYPES OF POLICE MISCONDUCT

• General categories of police misconduct:

1\. Violations of departmental regulations

and/or standards of conduct

2\. Abuse of discretion and/or authority

3\. Actions that undermine the administration of justice

4\. Commission of a criminal offence

Hypermasculinity and Gender Repression within Police

• About 20% of Canadian officers are women

– Sometime disparaging refer to RCMP as an “old boys club”

• Women officers consistently denied promotion, so underrepresented in senior positions

• Widespread bullying, sexual harassment, rape, and assault

– E.g. major class-action suits against RCMP including nearly 400 women officers in suit settled in 2016 for $100 million

• Hegemonic masculinity typified by “use of authority,

heterosexism, the ability to display force, and the

subordination of women” (Rabe-Hemp 2009:3).

COMPLAINTS AGAINST POLICE

• Conduct is most frequent complaint: can be disreputable conduct, abuse of authority, poor attitude

• Affected by the community: may have history of distrust of police

• Sanctions can be loss of pay, demotion, dismissal, apologies

THE COMPLAINT PROCESS

• Historically citizens would launch a complaint directly to the officer’s dept

– intimidating, may be a deterrent

• Procedures in place now for complaints of

– service

– public trust

– internal discipline

RCMP Class-action Lawsuits

RCMP has settled sexual harassment class action lawsuits with settlements exceeding $200 million

Ongoing $1.1 billion class action lawsuit for “systemic negligence in the form of bullying, intimidation, and general harassment”

– launched by Geoffrey Greenwood, after he was severely bullied after reporting in 2008 about bribery and corruption allegations against other drug officers

“The Greenwood vs. Canada lawsuit — which seeks compensation for what could be thousands of officers, civilian employees, students and volunteers — argues that internal remedies for such complaints are ineffective because they are dependent upon the "chain of command," which is often made up of those who were either responsible for the offending

behaviour or acted to protect others.”

https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/rcmp-lawsuit-bullying-appeal-1.5812426

Solidarity and Suspicion

• Solidarity and suspicion

• Proving masculinity. Maintain tough macho façade

– Repress emotions to avoidappearing weak which could lead to ridicule and being ostracized

– PTSD and other work-related stress not acknowledged as valid

Code of Silence

• Protection of other officers

– Internal culture values loyalty due to high risks involved in job

– perjury (lying) in court; particularly excessive use of force

– Planting or falsifying evidence

– Violating the code means being ostracized, career

ruined

• E.g. Frank Serpico, an undercover NYC officer revealed extensive police corruption during late 1960s. During a 1971 drug arrest, he was shot but other officers involved refused to call emergency services to help him

Dirty Harry Dilemma

Dirty Harry, 1971 film in which cop uses torture and violence to get information to track kidnapper of 14-year-old girl

• Dilemma refers to how some police

– view themselves as “forces of good” in a fight

with an evil enemy

– Law is seen as an impediment to getting the job done so they may be tempted to use perjury and deceit

ACTIVITIES IN THE GREY AREA

• Happens when officers need to exercise good judgment in ensuring their behaviour is proper

– example might be free meals offered

• Off-duty conduct can be scrutinized, although police do have a right to personal lives

Thin Blue Line

• Police as last line of defence against chaos

– Origins in “thin red line” from military

• Reference to 1854 battle during the Crimean War, British

forces stopped a Russian cavalry charge

• “Frontline” is another military metaphor

• How does this defensive attitude foster isolation from community?

Ad by Motorola entitled “The Thin Blue Line of DuPage County Police”

2020 New York City Police

“The NYPD is disciplining an officer who wore a “politically-oriented patch” while on duty — a day after video surfaced of a sergeant sporting a “Trump Make Enforcement Great Again 2020” patch at a Brooklyn protest.

The female sergeant was spotted at a Black Lives Matter demonstration Friday night outside a precinct in Ft. Greene, wearing a patch which plays off former President Trump’s “Make America Great Again” slogan, video posted online from the event shows.

The patch featured the skull emblem of Marvel Comics character The Punisher — tweaked to sport a Trump-style coif.”

Punisher“I may walk among the sheep, but make no mistake, I am the sheepdog.”

• Punisher comic Is about former policeman and war veteran whose family is killed and he eventually starts hunting criminals, as an outlaw figure

• Kentucky police pressured to remove

• Toronto police officer ith Punisher patch

\
Gerry Conway: Punisher Author on Police Use of Punisher logo

“Any "cop" who wears a Punisher logo in his official capacity is identifying law enforcement with an outlaw. These "cops" are a disgrace to serious police officers everywhere. They show an imbecilic level of irresponsibility and should

be fired immediately.”

Gerry Conway comments on Police

Use of

“Use of the Punisher logo by the Blue Lives Matter movement has long been criticized by activists and comics insiders: Even writer Gerry Conway, who created the Punisher with artists John Romita St and Ross Andru for 1974's The Amazing Spider-Man #129, says he's "disturbed" by the character being embraced by law enforcement.

"When cops put Punisher skulls on their cars or members of the military wear Punisher skull patches, they're basically sides with an enemy of the system," Conway told SyFyWire in January. "Whether you think the Punisher is justified or not, whether you admire his code of ethics, he is an outlaw—he is a criminal. Police should not be embracing a criminal as their symbol."

Conway compared cop cars with the Punisher logo to "a Confederate flag on a government building.””

Non-violent Resistance Strategy in Black Lives Matter Movement (BLM)

2016 Leshia Evans arrested by police in Baton Rouge, Louisiana USA during protests over the fatal police shooting of an African American, Alton Sterling

• BLM developed in 2013 after after the acquittal of George Zimmerman in the shooting death of African-American teen Trayvon Martin

• 2014 it became national after demonstrations over police killings the 2014 deaths of two African Americans, Michael Brown in Ferguson, Missouri, and Eric Garner in New York City

• Utilized the strategies of non-violent resistance have been frequently used

“Thin Blue Line” Graphic Novel

– One author wrote first five years of The Punisher

– Makes Black Lives Matter protests into breakdown of society

– major comic publishers wouldn’t publish this graphic novel

– 2022 authors trying to crowd source funding to publish the graphic novel

– authors state that a portion of the proceeds will go to three police charities

https://www.police1.com/communications/articles/marvels-the-punisher-

The Police Trophy Shot

Policing “is a (pre-crime) security project aimed at identifying and eradicating threats of crime and disorder.

In the context of the police trophy shot, each seized weapon signifies a murder or robbery averted and the familiar mounds of seized drugs, unknowable death and destruction.

As such, we should understand the police trophy shot as a dynamic image that (re)produces the police power by reminding state subjects of threats eliminated on their behalf and of the police who keep them safe” (Linnemann 2017:62)

1934 Bonnie and Clyde Ambush

• Bonnie Parker and Clyde Barrow and their gang committed many robberies and several murders during their crime spree; they were finally ambushed by police in Louisiana

\*Bonnie and Clyde’s “death car” at Whiskey Pete's Casino in Primm, Nevada USA

The Police Trophy Shot as State Prerogative

“...the police trophy shot (Figure 1) is an unvarnished representation of the state’s prerogative to search, seize and accumulate private property. Police trophy shots often accompany official press releases announcing a “major bust” 4 and are also produced by individual officers informally in order to commemorate a particular arrest or event. At a moment when social media has dramatically altered the one-way, top-down model of police–public dialogue, this sort of electronic visual self- representation is increasingly central to the production of the police image” (Linnemann 2017:58)

WRONGDOING IN POLICE WORK

• Discretion in the role can give rise to

misconduct, corruption

• Occupational subculture may contribute

• Police held to higher standard of conduct than citizens

• Sanctions can be reprimand, loss of pay, suspension, recommendation for therapy, dismissal

POLICE GOVERNANCE

• Challenging:

– some operational autonomy is needed, without interference/influence from government

– but for a democratic society, there must be ways to ensure police do not exceed their mandates

Civil Forfeiture

• Charge made against property, not person

– ‘Your property is guilty until you prove it innocent’

– Take your property without criminal charges, mere suspicion is enough, including its potential use in committing future criminal activity

• Has become institutionalized in USA with underfunded police forces utilizing it to cover operating costs

• Civil forfeiture in US involves billions of dollars confiscated

– “Policing for Profit Visualized: How Big Is Civil Forfeiture?”

– https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=37&v=KhAa2vep1z0&feature=e

mb_logo

• Canadian police have similar powers in most provinces

– https://theccf.ca/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/Civil-Forfeiture- Report-2015-2016-online.pdf

The Scale of Civil Forfeiture in USA

“...so widespread are these practices that in 2014 alone, Justice Department Agencies made a total of $3.9 billion dollars of civil asset seizures, far outpacing the $679 million in assets seized in formal criminal cases actually involving drugs (Ingraham, 2015)....

As the Washington Post recently reported, each year the city of Philadelphia seizes millions of dollars, much of it the “pocket change” of its poorest residents with nearly 60 percent of all civil asset forfeitures for amounts under $250 (Ingraham, 2015). 16 Critics have argued that in an environment of increasing fiscal austerity, civil and criminal asset forfeiture laws permit, if not encourage local policing agencies to supplement their budgets with the property of private citizens.” (Linnemann 2017)

Working personality of police officers:

set of attitudinal, behavioural attributes of police officers, posited 50 years ago

– preoccupation with danger, excessive suspicion, protective cynicism

– practice of “code of silence“ among officers

– in-group solidarity (“blue wall”)

– blue-light syndrome

– hypervigilance, elevated alertness of danger