Criminal Justice

Patrol Officers

Uniformed police who patrol areas to deter crime, respond to emergencies, enforce laws, and help the community. They're often the first responders to incidents.

Special Operations

Specialized police units focused on specific crimes or missions, such as SWAT (tactical response), narcotics, gang units, or K-9 teams.

Sworn Officers

Police officers who have taken an oath to uphold the law and have the authority to make arrests.

Detectives

Plainclothes officers who investigate crimes after they occur, collecting evidence and questioning witnesses or suspects.

Internal Affairs

A division within a police department that investigates misconduct or rule violations by officers.

Proactive Policing

A strategy where police prevent crime before it happens, using patrols, surveillance, or community engagement.

Reactive Policing

A strategy where police respond to crimes after they occur, such as 911 calls or reports from victims.

Evidence-Based Policing

Police strategies guided by research and data to determine which methods actually reduce crime effectively.

Incident-Driven Policing

A focus on responding to specific calls or incidents, rather than long-term prevention.

Differential Response

A system where police prioritize calls based on urgency, handling serious crimes immediately but responding to minor issues differently (like by phone).

Stop

A temporary detention of a person for investigation, based on reasonable suspicion of involvement in a crime.

Seizure

When police take control of a person or property under legal authority — for example, arresting someone or taking evidence.

Search

A lawful examination of a person, place, or object by police to find evidence of a crime. Usually requires probable cause or a warrant.

Investigation

The systematic process of gathering facts and evidence to solve a crime or determine what occurred.

Probable Cause

A reasonable belief, based on facts, that a crime has been committed or that evidence of a crime exists in a specific place.

Totality of the Circumstances

Considering all facts together when deciding whether probable cause or reasonable suspicion exists — not just one piece of evidence.

Exigent Circumstances

Urgent situations allowing police to act without a warrant, such as to prevent harm or destruction of evidence.

Inventory Search

A routine search of items (like a vehicle or bag) conducted by police to catalog property after an arrest.

Reasonable Suspicion

A belief based on specific facts that a person may be involved in criminal activity — less than probable cause, but more than a hunch.

Consent Searches

Searches done with the person's voluntary permission — no warrant or probable cause required if consent is freely given.

Public Safety Exception

Allows police to question a suspect without Miranda warnings if it's necessary to protect the public from immediate danger (like finding a hidden weapon).

Inquisitorial Process

A legal system (used in some countries) where judges actively investigate cases and gather evidence.

Adversarial Process

A legal system (used in the U.S.) where prosecution and defense present opposing arguments to a neutral judge or jury.

Accusatory Process

The formal steps through which a person becomes officially accused, including arrest, charges, and arraignment.

Work Group

The team of professionals (judge, prosecutor, defense attorney, etc.) who work together regularly in court.

Local Legal Culture

The customs, traditions, and informal rules that shape how cases are handled in a specific courthouse or jurisdiction.

Contract Counsel

Private attorneys hired by the government to represent poor defendants when public defenders are unavailable.

Defense Attorneys

Lawyers who represent people accused of crimes, ensuring their rights are protected and presenting their defense.

Prosecuting Attorneys

Lawyers who represent the government and seek to prove the defendant's guilt.

Assigned Counsel

Private lawyers appointed by the court to represent defendants who cannot afford one, paid by the government.

Voir Dire

The jury selection process, where potential jurors are questioned to ensure fairness and lack of bias.

Peremptory Challenge

Allows lawyers to dismiss a juror without giving a reason, as long as it's not discriminatory.

Challenge for Cause

Removes a potential juror who cannot be impartial or fair, based on clear bias or conflict.

Bench Trials

Trials without a jury, where the judge decides the facts and verdict.

Preventative Detention

Holding a defendant in jail before trial because they are considered a flight risk or danger to others.

Demonstrative Evidence

Evidence that illustrates information, like charts or models, to help explain testimony.

Reasonable Doubt

The highest standard of proof in criminal cases — jurors must be firmly convinced of guilt before convicting.

Real Evidence

Physical objects presented in court, such as weapons, drugs, or fingerprints.

Habeas Corpus

A legal right protecting individuals from unlawful imprisonment, allowing them to challenge detention in court.

Circumstantial Evidence

Evidence that suggests something happened but doesn't directly prove it — for example, fingerprints linking a suspect to a scene.

Retribution

Punishment meant to repay or make the offender suffer for the harm caused.

Deterrence

Punishment designed to discourage future crime — both for the individual (specific) and society (general).

Incapacitation

Protecting the public by removing the offender from society, often through imprisonment.

Rehabilitation

Helping offenders change their behavior through therapy, education, or training to reintegrate into society.

Restorative Justice

A justice model that focuses on repairing harm by involving victims, offenders, and the community in the healing process.

Presumptive Sentence

A recommended sentence range set by law that judges can adjust only under specific conditions.

Determinate Sentence

A fixed prison term, such as 10 years, with limited flexibility.

Indeterminate Sentence

A sentence with a range of years (like 5-15), allowing for parole based on rehabilitation.

Mandatory Sentence

A required punishment for certain crimes — judges have no discretion to reduce it.

Intermediate Sanction

A middle-ground punishment between probation and prison, such as house arrest or community service.

Furman v. Georgia (1972)

Ruled that the death penalty was being applied unfairly, violating the 8th Amendment; temporarily stopped executions.

Roper v. Simmons (2005)

Ruled it is unconstitutional to execute offenders under 18, as it violates the 8th Amendment's ban on cruel and unusual punishment.

Boykin v. Alabama (1969)

Held that a guilty plea must be made voluntarily and knowingly, and defendants must understand their rights.

Miranda v. Arizona (1966)

Established that police must inform suspects of their rights (to remain silent and have an attorney) before questioning — known as Miranda Rights.

Appellate Court

A higher court that reviews decisions of lower courts to check for legal or procedural errors.

Qualified Immunity

A doctrine that protects government officials (like police) from lawsuits unless they violated clearly established constitutional rights.