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What does the digestive system provide the body with?
nutrients
water
electrolytes
What does the digestive system do for the body?
eliminates undigested remains as feces
2 processes of the digestive system
digestion - food break-down
absorption - nutrient distribution into cells
2 divisions of the digestive system
alimentary canal - (GI tract)
accessory digestive organs
alimentary canal (GI tract)
includes the lining from the esophagus to the anal canal
What is the alimentary canal composed of?
4 basic layers or TUNICS:
mucosa
submucosa
muscularis externa
serosa / adventitia
accessory organs of the digestive system
teeth
tongue
salivary glands
liver
gallbladder
pancreas
mucosa
innermost tunic of the wall that lines the lumen of the digestive tract
submucosa
layer of dense, irregular (loose) connective tissue that supports the mucosa
muscularis externa
muscular wall of the GI tract, deep to the submucosa
serosa/adventitia
outermost (most distant from the lumen) layer of the GI tract
Intrinsic Nervous Plexus
innervates the stomach and enables gut function “gut-brain axis”
Palatine/Lingual tonsils
lymphoid tissues located posteriorly at each sides of the mouth (under the tongue)
tonsilitis
inflamed and enlarged Palatine tonsils
What are tonsils apart of?
the immune system
esophagus/gullet
NO digestion or absorption
What is the sole purpose of the esophagus?
move food to the stomach in wave-like motions
How long is the esophagus in a human?
25 cm long
Where is the stomach located?
located on the left side of the abdominal cavity (hidden by liver and diaphragm)
What part of the stomach is food broken down?
pyloric part
gastric glands
aids in the pyloric region of the stomach
secret HCl and hydrolytic enzymes
What does HCl do for the digestive system?
helps break down protein
absorb essential nutrients
control viruses and bacteria
What does hydrolytic enzymes do for the digestive system?
break down other molecules into smaller fragments
mucosal glands
secret mucus to protect stomach from digestive fluids
chyme
processed food that enters the small intestine
small intestine
where absorption occurs
completes the digestion process
Brush Border enzymes
hydrolytic enzymes in the microvilli cells that help complete the digestion process
Microvilli
cells that help increase the surface so that it can absorb more nutrients
circular folds
slow the passage of the partly digested food along the intestines
afford an increased surface for absorption
Where does majority of absorption occur?
small intestine
appendicitis
removal of the appendix due to inflammation
diarrhea
a result from undigested food before water is absorbed
constipation
results in food remaining in the large intestine for too long where most of the water is reabsorbed
lactose intolerance
the body not generating lactase to digest lactose properly
peristalsis
movement of food from oral cavity to stomach via esophagus
segmentation
movement of chyme in the intestines
catalyst
increases the rate of a chemical reaction without becoming the product
enzyme
ends in “ase”
trypsin
makes protein digestion possible
produced in the pancreas
hydrolyzes protein to become peptide molecules
Gut microbiota
encompasses all the different microbes in the gut
very important for overall metabolism
acid-base balance
the body’s pH level in extracellular fluids (input & output)
important for maintaining normal function of organs
important for body’s “homeostasis”
pH
determined by the pH (potential of hydrogen) scale
measures how “acidic or basic” a solution is
Key information about pH scale
distilled water will always be a neutral aqueous solution
less than 7 = acidic
greater than 7 = basic or alkaline
What organ systems utilize acid-base balance?
cardiovascular system (blood)
respiratory system (lungs)
urinary system (kidneys)
carbonic acid-bicarbonate buffer system
most important buffer for maintaining the pH homeostasis of blood
stabilizes blood to pH of 7.4 +/- 0.02
acid base equation
H20 + CO2 → H2CO3
water and carbon dioxide forms carbonic acid with the aid of carbonic anhydrase as the catalyst
chloride shift
RBCs exchange HCO3- for Cl
helps maintain negative charge in RBCs
may help with binding affinity to oxygen
What is the acid-base mnemonic?
R - espiratory
O - ppposite
M - etabolic
E - qual
acidosis
state in which there is a failure of ventilation and accumulation of carbon dioxide
increased PCO2
increased carbonic acid
increased H+ = low pH
increased bicarbonate
“HYPOVENTILATON”
alkalosis
disease state where the body’s pH is elevated to greater than 7.45
decreased PCO2
decreased carbonic acid
decreased H+ = high pH
decreased bicarbonate
“HYPERVENTILATION”
What is the relationship between breathing and blood pH?
reduced respiratory rate will lead to a decreased pH
the more carbon dioxide is exhaled, the less carbon dioxide is present
kidney
MAJOR HOMEOSTATIC ORGAN
removes nitrogenous waste
maintains electrolytes balances
acid-base balances
fluid balances
What is a kidney imbalance?
kidney AGENESIS - born with only 1, other failed to develop
kidney DYSPLASIA - both present but only ONE is functioning
surgery - removed to treat disease
may result in DEATH as the worst possible scenario
What are the 5 main structures of the urinary system?
Paired Kidneys - filtration = urine
Renal Pelvis - collects urine and is funneled into the ureter
Ureters - transports urine by peristalsis to the bladder (connects kidney to the bladder)
Bladder - temporary storage of urine
Urethra - drains bladder
males - 2 functions
females - only excretes urine
perirenal fat capsules
situated near the 12th ribs and supported by fat that prevents infections in surrounding regions from spreading to the kidney
nephron
filtration units
millions in kidney
renal corpuscle
renal tubule
cortical nephron
focuses on excretory and regulatory functions of the kidneys
most numerous, 85% located in renal cortex
juxtamedullary nephron
plays a role in concentrating/diluting urine
15% of population located deep in the cortex
3 types of capillary beds
glomerulus
peritubular capillary bed
vasa recta
helps to regulate filtration rate of urine and systemic blood pressure
3 steps in urine formation
Filtration by glomerulus
Reabsorption by peritubular capillaries
Secretion (reversed reabsorption) waste products are removed into urine
glomerular filtration
tubular reabsorption
tubular secretion
micturition
the act of emptying the bladder
done by using the micturition reflex (spinal reflex)
composition of urine
derived from blood composition
dependent on diet and cellular metabolism
5 characteristics of urine composition?
Color
Transparency
Odor
pH
Specific Gravity
What is urine comprised of?
95% water and nitrogenous wastes
What does a high pH indicate?
a vegetarian diet
Specific Gravity (SG)
weight of liquid relative to equal weight of distilled water
water has SG of 1.000
increased SG - concentrated urine
decreased SG - diluted urine
casts
microscopic cylindrical structures produced by the kidneys in certain diseases
microscopic crystals in urine
hydrometer
measures specific gravity of urine
gametes
sex cells that will be used to generate an offspring
males = sperm
females = egg or ova
meiosis
cell devision in sexually reproducing organisms that reduces the number of chromosomes in gametes
testes
main male reproductive organ
located in scrotum
generates sperm and hormones
contains seminiferous tubules (where sperm is formed)
epididymis
surrounds testes and is the site for sperm maturation
semen
contains both seminal fluid (alkaline-protection for survival in vagina) and sperm
uterus
muscular organ which houses a fetus during development
follicle
contains ovaries
ovaries
the main organ in the female reproductive system
generates eggs and hormones
ejected via ovulation (once a month)
uterine/fallopian tube
where the egg travels from the ovary to the uterus
fertilization occurs here
mammary gland
glandular organ located on the chest that produces milk
purpose is to nourish an infant by producing milk and stimulated by estrogen
meiosis
gamete generation with sex cells being haploid (23 chromosomes)
gametogenesis
specific gamete generation
spermatogenesis
begins at puberty and continues throughout male life
starts with stem cells called spermatogonia
ends with round spermatid
spermiogenesis
generation of finalized sperm with tail
oogenesis
begins at fetal developments and stops at birth
primary oocyte - arrested in prophase I
starts with stem cells called oogonia
ends with ova
What does oogenesis produce?
1 egg and 3 polar bodies
How many chromosomes do sex cells contain?
23 - they need to be haploid
each parent contributes 23
all other somatic cells are diploid (46 chromosomes)
crossing over
exchange of genetic material during sexual reproduction that results in recombinant chromosomes
recombination
enables genetic diversity
two molecules of DNA exchange pieces of their genetic material with each other
round spermatid
mature form; end of spermatogenesis
finalized sperm
product of spermiogenesis that is functional and has tail
spermatogonia
stem cells at the beginning of spermatogenesis
oogonia
immature female reproductive cell; beginning of oogenesis
polar bodies
small haploid cell that is formed at the same time as an egg cell during oogenesis but does not have the ability to be fertilized
female menstrual cycle
(28-32 day process)
Menstrual - functional endometrium is shed off if fertilization doesn’t occur (day 1-5)
Proliferative - functional layer of endometrium is rebuilt by estrogen (day 6-14)
ovulation occurs after day 14
Secretory - functional layer of endometrium receives enrichment of blood supplies and nutrients via glands (prepare for fertilization) (day 15-28)
endometriosis
painful condition where endometrial tissue grows outside of the uterus
symptom is pelvic pain/cramping - associated with periods
prostate cancer
Prostate - small, walnut-shaped gland that produces seminal fluids
most common cancer in men over 50 years old
highest risk factor is genetics and age