Mod 1: Catalyst for Change

computers, networks

Two Principal Catalysts

• Low-cost ________

• High-speed communication ______

tablet

Simply having a tablet to write down the numbers being manipulated is a great help

ancient

erasable clay and wax tablets served this purpose

middle ages

Europeans often used erasable slates

19th century

Paper tablets became common

abacus

is a computing aid in which a person performs arithmetic operations by sliding counters along with rods, wires, or lines

table of logarithms

time savers to anyone doing complicated math because they allowed them to multiply two numbers by simply adding their logarithms

JohnNapier and Johannes Kepler

publishers of table of logarithms

income tax tables

people who compute their income taxes “by hand” make use of tax tables to determine how much they owe

pascal’s calculator blaise pascal

built-in 1640, was capable of adding whole numbers containing up to six digits

step reckoner gottfried leibniz

a handcrafted machine that can add, subtract, multiply, and divide whole numbers

arithmometer charles thomas de colmar

the first commercially successful calculator

scheutz difference engine georg scheutz and edvard

• the world’s first printing calculator

• a machine capable of calculating mathematical tables and typesetting the values onto molds

burroughs adding machine william burroughs

devised a practical adding machine

james and john ritty

they designed an adding machine capable of expressing values in dollars and cents

herman hollerith

he developed an electromechanical tabulating machine for punched cards to assist in summarizing information and in accounting

small-scale experimental machine

was the first operational, fully electronic computer system that had both programs and data stored in its memory

ferranti ltd

they introduced the world’s first commercial computer in 1951

ferrantimark 1

a descendant of research computers constructed at the University of Manchester

remington-rand

·       Completed UNIVAC in 1951

·       Delivered to U.S. Bureau of the Census

·       Predicted winner of 1952 Pres. Election

IBM

·       Larger base of customers

·       Far superior sales and marketing organization

·       Greater investment in research and development

·       Dominated mainframe market by mid-1960s

assembly language

-               Symbolic representations of machine instructions

-               Programs just as long as machine language programs

fortran 1957

• First higher-level language (shorter programs)

• Designed for scientific applications

cobol 1959

-               U.S. Department of Defense standard

-               Designed for business applications

time-sharing systems

-               Divide computer time among multiple users

-               Users connect to a computer via terminals

-               Cost of ownership spread among more people

-               Gave many more people access to computers

basic

-               Developed at Dartmouth College

-               Simple, easy-to-learn programming language

-               Popular language for teaching programming

transistor

-               Replacement for vacuum tube

-               Invented at Bell Labs (1948)

semiconductor

-               Faster

-               Cheaper

-               More reliable

-               More energy-efficient

integrated circuit

Semiconductor containing transistors, capacitors, and resistors

before system/360

o    IBM dominated the mainframe market in the 1960s

o    IBM computers were incompatible

o    Switch computers ® rewrite programs

system/360 1964

o    Series of 19 computers with varying levels of power

o    All computers could run the same programs - Compatible

o    Upgrade without rewriting programs

microprocessor

·       Computer inside a single semiconductor chip

o    Invented in 1970 at Intel

o    Made personal computers practical

telegraph 1844

a machine used to transmit messages in the form of electrical impulses that can be converted into data

telephone 1876

invented by Alexander Graham Bell

christopher sholes, carlos glidden, samuel soule

they patented the first typewriter

late 1873

Remington & Sons Company, famous for guns and sewing machines, produced the first commercial typewriter

1908

the year the typewriter  was  modified  to  print  a message transmitted over a telegraph line; the inventors called the invention, a teletype

paul nipkow

invention of an electromechanical television in 1884

philo farnsworth

first completely electronic television transmission was made in 1927

remote computing 1940

George Stibitz demonstrated remote computing to members of the American Mathematical Society who were meeting at Dartmouth College in New Hampshire. He typed numbers into the teletype, which transmitted the data 250 miles to the calculator in New York City. After the calculator had computed the answer, it transmitted the data back to the teletype, which printed the result

advanced research projects agency network 1969

• In 1967 ARPA initiated the design and construction of the ARPANET

• first wide-area packet-switching network with distributed control and the first network to implement the TCP/IP protocol suite

ray tomlinson

In March 1972, he wrote the first software enabling email messages to be sent and received by ARPANET computers

lawrence roberts

created the first “killer app” for the network: an email utility that gave individuals the ability to list their email messages selectively read them, reply to them, forward them.

internet 1983

network of networks communicating using TCP/IP

broadband

o    High-speed Internet connection

o    At least 10x faster than a dial-up connection

o    Enhanced by fiber-optic networks

o    South Korea is the world leader in broadband networking.3/4 of homes have broadband connections

newspapers

The first English-language newspaper appeared in Great Britain in the 1600shyp

hypertext

refers to a linked network of nodes containing information

ted nelson

in 1965, he coined the word hypertext

douglas engelbart

created a research lab called the Augmentation Research which developed a hypermedia and groupware system called NLS (oNLine System) Center

nls system

was the first to employ the practical use of hypertext links, the mouse, raster-scan video monitors, information organized by relevance, screen windowing, presentation programs, and other modern computing concepts

engelbart

invented several new input devices, including the computer mouse

xeros palo alto research center (parc) 1970

a new facility dedicated to performing research into digital technology

alto

a small minicomputer designed to be used by a single person. incorporated a bitmapped display, a keyboard, and a mouse

lisa 1983

apple released the first commercial computer with a GUI, or Graphical User Interface

• The price tag was too high, the processor was too slow, and the Lisa was not commercially successful

macintosh 1984

apple release a faster computer with a graphical user interface

may 1990

Microsoft released Windows 3.0 for IBM PCs

tim berners lee

completed the first Web browser on the NeXT Computer (1990) - called his browser WorldWideWeb

mosaic

The first widely used Web browser, developed at the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign

search engine

a program that accepts a list of keywords from a user, searches a database of documents, and returns those documents most closely matching the specified keywords

crawler-based search engines

such as Google and AltaVista, automatically create the database of information about Web pages.

human-powered search engines

relies upon humans to build the database of information about various Web pages

information technology

refers to devices used in the creation, storage, manipulation, exchange, and dissemination of data, including text, sound, and images

email

allows  anyone to send email to anyone else with an email address

spam

most email traffic, unsolicited, bulk, commercial email

world wide web

has provided an unprecedented opportunity for individuals and nongovernmental organizations to have their points of view made available to billions

computers

are now embedded in many devices on which we depend, from traffic signals to pacemakers

software errors

have resulted in injury and even death

innovators 2.5%

• the first individuals to adopt an innovation. Innovators are willing to take risks, youngest in age, have the highest social classLinks to an external site., have great financial lucidity, very social and have closest contact to scientific sources and interaction with other innovators.

• Risk tolerance has them adopting technologies which may ultimately fail. Financial resources help absorb these failures

early adopters 13.5%

• the second fastest category of individuals who adopt an innovation

• These individuals have the highest degree of opinion leadership among the other adopter categories

• typically younger in age, have a higher social status, have more financial lucidity, advanced education, and are more socially forward than late adopters

• More discrete in adoption choices than innovators. Realize judicious choice of adoption will help them maintain central communication position

early majority 34%

• adopt an innovation after a varying degree of time.

• significantly longer than the innovators and early adopters

• tend to be slower in the adoption process, have above average social status, contact with early adopters, and seldom hold positions of opinion in a system

late majority 34%

• will adopt an innovation after the average member of the society

• approach an innovation with a high degree of skepticism and after the majority of society has adopted the innovation

• typically skeptical about an innovation, have below average social status, very little financial lucidity, in contact with others in late majority and early majority, very little opinion

laggards 16%

• the last to adopt an innovation

• show little to no opinion leadership

• typically have an aversion to change-agents and tend to be advanced in age

• tend to be focused on “traditions”, likely to have lowest social status, lowest financial fluidity, be oldest of all other adopters, in contact with only family and close friends, very little to no opinion