BIO 111 FINAL EXAM REVIEW CONCISE

Atom

The smallest unit of matter.

Element

A pure substance made of only one type of atom.

Subatomic Particles

Protons, neutrons, and electrons that make up an atom.

Proton (p⁺)

A positively charged subatomic particle found in the nucleus.

Neutron (n⁰)

A neutral subatomic particle found in the nucleus.

Electron (e⁻)

A negatively charged subatomic particle that orbits the nucleus.

Atomic Number (Z)

The number of protons in an atom, which defines the element.

Mass Number (A)

The total number of protons and neutrons in an atom.

Isotope

Atoms of the same element that have different numbers of neutrons.

Ion

An atom or molecule that has a net charge due to the loss or gain of electrons.

Valence Shell

The outermost occupied electron shell that determines reactivity.

Electronegativity (EN)

The ability of an atom to attract shared electrons.

Polarity

The distribution of electric charge around atoms, molecules, or chemical groups.

Ionic Bond

A chemical bond formed by the transfer of electrons from one atom to another.

Covalent Bond

A chemical bond characterized by the sharing of electron pairs between atoms.

Hydrogen Bond

A weak electrostatic attraction between a hydrogen atom bonded to an electronegative atom and another electronegative atom.

Molecular Formula

A notation that indicates the type and number of atoms in a molecule (e.g., C6H12O6).

Chemical Equation

A representation of a chemical reaction using symbols and formulas.

Solution

A homogeneous mixture where one substance is dissolved in another.

Hydrophilic

Substances that are polar or charged and can dissolve in water.

Hydrophobic

Substances that are non-polar and do not dissolve in water.

pH

A scale used to measure the acidity or basicity of a solution based on hydrogen ion concentration.

Buffer

A substance that stabilizes pH by resisting changes in hydrogen ion concentration.

Organic Molecule

A molecule that contains carbon-hydrogen (C-H) bonds.

Inorganic Molecule

A molecule that does not contain C-H bonds.

Functional Group

A specific group of atoms within a molecule that is responsible for the characteristic chemical reactions of that molecule.

Dehydration Synthesis

A chemical reaction that joins two molecules together by removing a water molecule.

Hydrolysis

A chemical reaction that breaks down a compound by adding water.

Macromolecules

Large molecules that are essential for life's functions, including carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

Cell Theory

The theory that states all living organisms are made of cells, and all cells arise from pre-existing cells.

Prokaryotic Cell

A simple, unicellular organism without a nucleus or membrane-bound organelles.

Eukaryotic Cell

A complex cell with a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.

Fluid Mosaic Model

The model describing the structure of cell membranes as a flexible layer made of phospholipids with embedded proteins.

ATP

A molecule that stores and transports chemical energy within cells.

Enzyme

A biological catalyst that accelerates a chemical reaction by lowering the activation energy.

Passive Transport

The movement of substances across a cell membrane without the use of energy, following the concentration gradient.

Active Transport

The movement of substances across a cell membrane using energy, against the concentration gradient.

Photosynthesis

The process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria convert light energy into chemical energy, producing glucose and oxygen as byproducts.

Cellular Respiration

The metabolic process in which cells break down glucose into energy, water, and carbon dioxide.

Aerobic Respiration

The process of producing cellular ATP in the presence of oxygen.

Anaerobic Respiration

The process of producing cellular ATP without oxygen.

Gene Expression

The process through which genetic information is transformed into proteins.

DNA Mutation

A permanent alteration in the DNA sequence that makes up a gene.

Cell Cycle

The series of phases that a cell goes through to divide and replicate, including G1, S, G2, and M phases.

Mitosis

The process of cell division that results in two identical daughter cells.

Meiosis

A specialized form of cell division that reduces the chromosome number by half, resulting in four unique gametes.

Mendelian Genetics

The study of how traits are passed from parents to offspring based on the principles established by Gregor Mendel.

Genetic Engineering

The manipulation of an organism's DNA to alter its characteristics.

Cloning

The process of creating a genetically identical copy of an organism or cell.

Stem Cells

Undifferentiated cells with the potential to develop into various cell types.

Gene Therapy

A technique that uses genes to treat or prevent disease by inserting, altering, or removing genes.