Comparative Politics - Russia

Review for Final

What did Governance under the Soviet Union look like?

*One Party Rule: the communist party of the Soviet union held absolute power; no other political parties or independent movements were allowed. 

• Corruption was who would have power within the pillars 

• *Party as the State’s Core: the CPSU was the supreme authority, directing the state, economy, and society through centralized leadership and democratic centralism. 

  • the top of the pyramid controls all other levels. 

  • participate in choosing your representatives but once decision is made you have to follow whatever policy the top of the pyramid leadership decides.

• *Nomenklatura System: the party controlled key appointments in government, industry, and culture by maintaining a list of trusted cadres to fill all important posts. 

  • Essence of corruption 

  • For example, if you want your kid to go to the best school, they can give a list and the kid would get the top grade. 

What is Totalitarianism?

Totalitarian - more total control; the goal is not to govern only but to change man and man’s behavior

1. all encompassing control: the state seeks to dominate every aspect of public and private left - political, economic, social, cultural, and personal beliefs

2. one-party rule: a single ruling party monopolizes power, eliminating all political competition and embedding itself throughout society

3. police control and surveillance: secret police, informants, and pervasive surveillance enforce conformity and suppress dissent through fear and coercion

4. ideological foundation: a unifying ideology claims universal truth and shapes all policies, education, and culture

5. mass mobilization: citizens are expected to actively participate in state-sponsored organizations, rituals, and campaigns

6. “new man” ideal: the regime seeks to reshape citizens values and identifies to fit its ideological vision, creating a “new socialist” or “ideal” human being.

What are Hybrid Systems (Totalitarian & Authoritarian)?

A hybrid regime is a political system that blends elements of both democracy and authoritarianism, while totalitarianism and authoritarianism are distinct forms of autocratic rule.

• Authoritarianism and totalitarianism are both forms of non-democratic government characterized by the concentration of power in the hands of a leader or a small elite. 

Characteristics: 

1. Selective/strategic ideology: the regime uses ideology strategically for legitimacy but doesn’t pursue full societal transformation as in totalitarianism. 

2. Limited pluralism: some social, cultural, or economic spheres remain outside direct state control, through political opposition is still tightly restricted.

3. Coercion/appeasement and Co-Optation: the state combines repression with patronage and controlled freedoms to maintain power.

4. Low Mobilization: unlike Totalitarian regimes, hybrid systems don’t demand active mass participation; instead, they tolerate passivity as long as opposition is minimal. 

5. Cult of Personality: carefully cultivated public image, strength, decisiveness, and “father of the nation” 

What is Bicameral Legislature: State Duma & Federation Council

Bicameral legislature had three main characteristics: formally limited presidents to two consecutive terms, reflect a trade-off prioritizing stability over democratization, designed as a hybrid: democratic forms but centralizing authoritarian tendencies. 

• maintains democratic-looking institutions (elections, courts, parties) for legitimacy

• real decision-making concentrated in the presidency and informal Kremlin networks

• allows the regime to adapt and endure, while maintaining an appearance of pluralism (democracy).

• salient characteristics make it centralized authoritarian tendencies, a facade of democracy

• distinguish democracies, totalitarian, and authoritarian

  • the old soviet union collapsed but it was not overthrown by a popular revolution, many personalities remained same, networks in communist party survived.

What are the pre-conditions and reasons for Russian revolution?

• Russia remained autocratic and economically backward even after modest reforms in 1905.

• They were plagued by strikes and peasant unrest. 

• Disastrous involvement in WWI exposed its military weakness, caused massive casualties, economic collapse, and deepened public discontent - this led to the fall of the Romanov dynasty in 1917 

*Going through rapid industrialization 

What was the Romanov Dynasty?

The last imperial family to rule Russia, reigning from 1613 to 1917. It began when Mikhail Romanov was elected Tsar by an assembly and ended with the execution of Nicholas II and his family during the Russian Revolution.

1905: Upheaval (Revolution):

• Mounting grievances from industrial workers, peasants, & the intelligentsia over economic hardship, political repression, and defeat in the Russo-Japanese War led to mass protests, strikes, and armed mutinies. 

• Upheaval unfolded under Tsar of the Romanov dynasty, with protestors demanding constitutional limits on autocracy. 

• Although it failed to overthrow Romanov regime, marked a major political upheaval, forcing Nicholas II to issue the October Manifesto, granted limited civil liberties and created Russia’s first elected parliament (the Duma), introducing elements of constitutional monarchy. 

Discuss the Prelude to the collapse of the USSR 

1971-1982: Brezhnev’s Stagnation:

• Economic growth slowed, corruption, and bureaucracy deepened, and repression of dissent increased. The Soviet Afghan War (1979-1989) further strained resources and legitimacy. 

1985: Gorbachev’s Reforms: Perestroika and Glasnost 

1991: August 1991 Coup:

• Hardline Communist officials attempted a coup to overthrow Gorbachev and stop his reforms, but mass protests, Boris Yeltsin’s defiance, and lack of military support led to the coup’s failure - fatally weakening the Soviet government. 

When and why did the Soviet Union collapse?

1991: Collapse of the USSR

• mounting economic crisis, nationalist revolts, and a failed coup in August 1991 led to the USSR’s dissolution in December, ending communist rule & creating 15 independent republics.

  • USSR made up 15 republics which all declared independence.

• Yeltsin:

  • Led Russia out of the USSR: As President of the Russian Republic, Yeltsin defied the August 1991 coup, championed independence, and declared Russia sovereign, leading to the USSR’s dissolution.

  • Launched “shock therapy” economic reforms to transition Russia to capitalism, which caused economic hardship.

    • Collapse of Soviet Union led to the United States being the only dominant power.

  • Weakened Central Authority: Oversaw a chaotic decade marked by declining state control, rising oligarch power, a brutal war in Chechnya, and erosion of public trust in government.

What are some major causes of the Soviet Union collapse?

Gorbachev’s Reforms: Mikhail Gorbachev introduced perestroika (economic restructuring) and glasnost (openness) to revitalize the USSR, but these reforms exposed systemic weaknesses and unleashed nationalist movements. Opened up political process as he was restructuring the economy.

1. Soviet Union Collapse was based on socialism: no incentive for people to work hard and be creative.

• People were unhappy - no freedom, did not feel safe. 

• Over 4,000 nuclear bombs - same system creating the 2nd best military systems could not produce enough jeans for people to wear.  

2. Perestroika and Glasnost: Restructuring of economic freedom with more openness and transparency in the government

• Perestroika and Glasnost were two key policies of Soviet Leader Gorbachev that aimed to reform the Soviet Union. He endorsed a reform program that centered around four important concepts intended to spur economic growth and bring political renewal.

• Glasnost translates to “openness” and more transparency in the government. Perestroika refers to restructuring, which sought to reform the Soviet political and economic systems. Demokratizatsiia is a type of limited democratization.

• designed to adapt the communist system to new conditions rather than to usher in its demise.

• Economic stagnation - central planning, inefficiency, and military spending over consumer goods led to severe economic problems.

• Introduced them at the same time too quickly, tried to do too much too quickly.

Discuss Stalin’s Rise, Achievements, and Failures

Rise of Stalin:

• Lenin died in 1924, and Stalin came and quickly consolidated power.

• He eliminated Rivals in the Party (1924-27): Stalin outmaneuvered Leon Trotsky by forming temporary alliances with his opponents. Forced Trotsky into exile in 1929.

• The Great Purges of 1936-1938: Stalin orchestrated show trials, executions, and imprisonment of former allies and perceived enemies.

Stalin’s Achievements:

• *Industrialization - transformed the USSR into a major industrial power through the five-year plans, building heavy industry and modern infrastructure.

• Victory in WWII - led to the soviet union to defeat Nazi Germany, securing superpower status and expanding influence over Eastern Europe 

• Expanded Education & Modernization: increased literacy rates, expanded education and healthcare, and promoted women’s participation in the workforce. 

Stalin’s Failures:

• *Human Rights Atrocities: Orchestrated mass purges, show trials, and the Gulag system, leading to millions of deaths and pervasive fear.

• Forced Collectivization (1929-1933): agricultural collectivization caused catastrophic famines, killing millions. Wealthier peasants were labeled “class enemies” with hundreds of thousands executed, imprisoned, or deported to Siberian labor camps to eliminate resistance to collective farming.

• Suppressed Freedom: Crushed dissent, eliminated civil liberties, and entrenched a totalitarian regime that stifled creativity and individual rights. 

  • In Russia there was no private property ownership.

Discuss the USSR after Stalin 

After Stalin’s death, in 1953, the leadership contest ended with Nikita Khrushchev consolidating power by 1955. 

• 1956: De-stalinization

  • Khrushchev’s “Secret Speech” criticized Stalin’s purges & cult of personality, initiating limited liberalization - promoted housing, construction, consumer goods, and other reforms, but agriculture and shortages lagged and persisted.

    • The speech changed communism. Russia was scared of Ukraine, due to NATO getting too close to them.

  • Cold War: USSR faced off with US over Berlin. Berlin wall was built in 1961, Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962, and nuclear arms, while asserting itself in the third world and space race.

Explain the Russian Constitution & Political System (1993)

• Established a strong presidential system, limiting parliament’s influence 

• President dominates the executive branch, shaping domestic and foreign policy with minimal constraints 

• Parliament can pass laws but cannot effectively challenge the president without supermajorities. 

• President has the power to dissolve the Duma under specific political deadlock scenarios.

• Name of Parliament of Congress in Russia is Duma. 

• President as head of state, commander in chief, and policy leader

• Holds supreme command over the military and national security services. 

• Directs foreign policy, including treaty negotiations and declarations of war. 

• Defines national priorities in annual addresses and strategic documents. 

• Russia President enjoys much more power than American President has. 

What was Foreign Policy under Putin?

• Restoration of “Great Power” Status: Reasserted Russia as a central global player rejecting post Cold-War marginalization. Soviet Union and US used to be called great superpowers, until the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991 leaving only the US as a dominant power. The bipolar world became Union polar world. At this time, China was not a superpower. Once the Soviet Union collapsed, the 1990’s became the American decade.

• Opposition to NATO & EU Expansion: Framed NATO enlargement as a direct threat, justifying interventions in Georgia (2008) and Ukraine (2014, 2022).

  • This is the fear Russia has today about Ukraine: Napoleon attacked Russia right through Ukraine & Germany attacked Adolf Hitler right through Ukraine.

• Near Abroad Dominance: Focused on maintaining Russian influence in former Soviet republics through military, economic, and political means.