Anatomy & Physiology 2: Final Lecture Exam

stratified epithelium

multiple layers of epithelial cells used for protection

Where is stratified epithelium found?

Nasal vestibule, oropharynx

respiratory epithelium

1 layer of pseudostratified epithelium made of columnar (rectangular cells) contains goblet cells

Where is respiratory epithelium found?

Nasal conche and nasopharynx

pharyngeal tonsils

A mass of lymph tissue embedded in posterior wall of the nasopharynx (filters)

palantine tonsils

Found in the oropharynx (roof of the mouth) lymph masses that end at level of hyoid bone

Where does the auditory tube open?

The lateral walls of the nasopharynx

Where are the external nares located?

Anterior boundary of the nose, commonly called nostrils

Where are the internal nares located?

Posterior boundary of nose, where the nose & throat join

Where are the fauces located?

left & right sides of the nose separated by the nasal septum

inspiration

act of breathing IN, occurs when chest cavity increases in size due to action of intercostal muscles that pull the ribcage out & contracts and flattens the diaphragm

expiration

act of breathing OUT, occurs when chest cavity is compressed as intercostal muscles pull ribs in & diaphragm releases becoming dome shaped

alveolar air space

Space inside the alveolus

alveolar capillary

mesh like arrangement of blood vessels around each alveolus

How does oxygen move in the alveolus?

Oxygen in the alveolar air space diffuses into the alveolar capillaries

How does Carbon Dioxide move in the alveolus?

Carbon Dioxide diffuses from the alveolar capillaries into the alveolar air space

How does oxygen and carbon dioxide move in and out of the aveolus?

They diffuse at the same time

Lungs

Made of 1000s alveolus

costal surface of lung

faces the ribs

mediastinal surface of lung

faces the body's midline

Lobes of the lungs

Left has 2 Lobes
Right has 3 Lobes

The right lung is divided into 3 lobes

superior, middle, inferior

The left lung is divided into 2 lobes

superior and inferior

The lobes are separated by fissures

horizontal and oblique

horizontal fissure

separates the superior and middle lobes of the right lung

oblique fissure

separates the superior and inferior lobes of the left lung

cardiac notch of left lung

concavity that accommodates the heart

apex of the lung

tip or uppermost portion of the lung

base of the lung

lower portion of the lung, resting on the diaphragm

Pluera

Membrane surrounding the lungs

2 layered pleura of the lungs

visceral pleura
parietal pleura

visceral pleura

adheres to the lungs surface

parietal pleura

adheres to the chest wall

Layers of the GI tract

1. Mucosa
2. Submucosa
3. Muscularis
4. Covering

mucosa

deepest layer that faces & lines the lumen, made of 3 parts

3 parts of mucosa

1. mucus epithelium
2. lamina propria
3. muscularis mucosa

mucus epithelium

epithelium with goblet cells for mucus protection

lamina propria

thin, flat connective tissue layer

muscularis mucosa

thin layer of smooth muscle that folds mucosa into ridges

Submucosa

thicker layer of connective tissue, contains blood vessels and nerves

submucosal plexus

nerves that control the submucosa

Muscularis

layers of smooth muscle, that moves food though peristalsis

myenteric plexus

Nerves part of the ANS that control peristalsis

Peristalsis

Involuntary waves of muscle contraction that keep food moving along in one direction through the digestive system.

covering of the GI tract include

Peritoneum
Adventitia

covering

superficial surface of organs

Peritonium

serous membrane , thin moist delicate folded into 2 parts: visceral and parietal

visceral peritoneum

adheres to the organ

parietal peritoneum

adheres to abdominal-pelvic wall

adventitia

a tough covering that holds firmly in place
includes: mouth cavity, pharynx, esophagus, rectum, anus

Gastrin

increases stomach secretions when food is present

Ghrelin

stimulates hunger centers in the hypothalamus

Gastrin and ghrelin are what type of cell?

enteroendocrine cells

What is villi?

fingerlike projections that increase the inner surface area of the small intestine

What organ contains villi?

small intestine

picae circulares

folds of the small intestine wall covered in villi, slows movement of chyme & allows ample time for processing

What are villi made of

made of cuboidal epithelium, inside each villi are: arteriole, venule, and lacteal

arteriole

tiny artery carries oxygen rich blood to enterocytes

venule

tiny vein, absorbs carbon dioxide from enterocytes & nutrients from lumen

lacteal

tiny vesicle that absorbs specific fats from chyme

liver functions include:

-detoxifies & purifies blood from small intestine venules
-produces bile that emulsifies fat
-manufactures cholesterol
-mobilizes fats into sugars
-incorporates bilirubin into feces

cheif cells

secrete pepsinogen that becomes pepsin for protein digestion

parietal cells

secrete HCL, makes ph. in stomach 1.35-1.45, this strong acid denatures proteins, kills most bacteria & converts pepsinogen to pepsin
-Also, secretes intrinsic factors that help absorb vitamin D

enteroendocrine cells

release & secrete hormones of various types
example: gastrin & ghrelin

Which organs acts to absorb our nutrients?

Small Intestine

What contains blood in a nephron?

The glomerulus & vasa recta

What contains filtrate in a nephron?

Bowman's capsule, PCT, Henle's loop, DCT, and the collecting tubule

What does the renal papillae contain?

urine

3 pressures that influence glomerular filtration

1. Glomerular Blood Hydrostatic Pressure
2. Capsular Hydrostatic Pressure
3. Blood Colloidal Osmotic Pressure

Glomerular Blood Hydrostatic Pressure

The forces & pressure of blood in the glomerulus pushing filtrate OUT, under normal conditions pressure is 60 mm Hg, can increase or decrease with blood pressure changes

Capsular Hydrostatic Pressure

Force of bowman's capsule driving some filtrate back INTO the glomerulus , this pressure is 18 mm Hg

Blood Colloidal Osmotic Pressure

The osmotic pressure of the blood that pulls some filtrate back INTO the glomerulus, usually pressure is 32 mm Hg

normal net filtration pressure

10 mmHg

how is net filtration calculated?

60-(18+32)

What is the net filtration rate if a nephron has failed?

0mmHg

tubular reabsorption

"keep the good stuff" from filtrate, moves beneficial molecules from tubules into surrounding vasa recta & bv
-99% of filtrate is moved from the tubes to vasa recta

tubular secretion

"moves bad stuff" or excess stuff from blood in vasa recta into tubules, filtrate exits collecting tubules at renal papillae
-Opposite from tubular reabsorption

Which hormone is released when blood pressure is too high?

ANP: Atrial Naturistic Peptide
-cells in wall of right atrium stretch to release ANP

What is the function of renin?

maintains blood pressure, and activates angiotensin (produced in the kidneys) This peptide hormone is secreted by the kidneys from specialized cells

What is the function of angiotensin 2

-Enhances dilation of afferent arteriole
-Enhances constriction of efferent arteriole
-Stimulates thirst centers in hypothalamus & adrenal glands to release aldosterone

What is the function of aldosterone?

-promotes the reabsorption of sodium ions and water by the kidneys
-sodium ions increase osmotic pressure & increase blood volume & pressure

layers of the kidney

Renal Capsule
Adipose Capsule
Renal Fascia

Renal Capsule

covers exterior of kidney, thin, tough covering that holds microscopic units of kidney (nephron) together & prevents infection (Deepest Layer)

Adipose Capsule

A layer of fat that cushions kidney (middle layer)

Renal Fascia

Tough connective tissue that holds kidney in place (most superficial layer)

What tube carries urine from renal pelvis to the bladder?

Ureter

What tube carries urine from the bladder to the exterior of the body?

Urethra

Tracing Urine

Renal Papillae
Minor Calyx
Major calyx
Renal pelvis
Ureter
Bladder
Urethra

What fluid fills the minor/major calyx & renal pelvis?

Urine

Spermatogenesis

the production of sperm cells
Begins at puberty, occurs in seminiferous tubules (cell division)

Spermiogenesis

The conversion of spermatids to sperm

Gonads

organs that produce gametes (testes & ovaries)

Gametes

haploid sex cells (sperm & egg)

Are sperm haploid or diploid cells?

haploid

How many chromosomes do sperm cells have?

23 chromosomes

Release of LH & FSH in males

At puberty GnRH is released by the hypothalamus, GnRH travels to pituitary gland causing the release of LH & FSH at the same time

Release of LH & FSH in females

At puberty GnRH is released by the hypothalamus, GnRH travels to pituitary gland causing the release of FSH. FSH travels to the 1st primary follicle to complete meiosis 1. Then the 2nd degree oocyte continues to mature and becomes a graafian follicle which contains lots of estrogen causing the pituitary gland to release LH.

prostate gland

Made of 30 units covered in fibrous connective tissue, doughnut shaped gland at base of bladder, encircling the urethra (enhance sperm motility)

seminal vesicle

A pair of honeycomb-shaped glands on the bladder's posterior side, secrete fructose-rich fluid which sperm use as an energy source.

bulbourethral glands

small round glands, embedded on each side of the urethra in body wall, secretions from these coat urethra protecting sperm from urine residue & raise vaginal ph