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3 processes of memory
Encoding
Storage
Retrieval
Encoding
the set of mental operations that people perform on sensory information to convert that information into a form that is usable in the brain’s storage systems.
The ears turning vibrations in the air into neural messages from the auditory nerve, making it possible for the brain to interpret sound is an example of…
Encoding
Storage
holding on to information for some period of time
In one system of memory, people hold onto the information temporarily (20 seconds or so), in another system of memory, people hold onto the information permanently. This is an example of…
Storage
Retrieval
getting information that is in storage into a form that can be used.
Handing in an essay and then remembering several other things you could’ve said is an example of…
Retrieval
Three models of memory:
Information processing model
Levels of processing model
Parallel distributed processing model
Information-processing-model
most comprehensive and influential model; stipulates that the length of time that a memory will be remembered depends on the stage of memory in which it was stored.
Sensory memory
First system in the process of memory , in which raw information from the senses is held for a brief period of time.
Ionic sensory memory
visual sensory memory, lasting only a fraction of a second
Eidetic imagery
the ability to access a visual memory for 30 seconds or more (aka photographic memory)
Echoic memory
auditory sensory memory, lasting only 2-4 seconds.
Short term memory
the memory system in which information is held for brief periods of time while being used.
Selective attention
the ability to focus on only one stimulus from among all sensory inputs.
—> only a stimulus “important” enough will make it past the bottleneck to be consciously analyzes for meaning in STM.
Working memory
an active system that processes the information present within short-term memory.
Working memory’s three interrelated systems:
Central executive
Visuospatial “sketchpad”
Auditory action “recorder”
Maintenance Rehearsal
The practice of saying some information to be remembered over and over in one’s head to maintain it in short-term memory.
Digit span test
Memory test in which a series of numbers is read to subjects in the experiment who are then asked to recall the numbers in order.
Chunking
A method of combining bits of info into meaningful units, or chunks, so that more info can be held in the short term memory.
Long Term Memory
The system of memory into which all the information is placed to be kept more or less permanently.
Elaborative Rehearsal
a way of increasing the number of retrieval cues; a method of transferring information from the STM to LTM by making that information meaningful in some type of way.
Explicit/Declarative memory
a type of long term memory containing information that is conscious and known.
Episodic
a type of declarative memory containing personal information not readily available to others, such as daily activities and events.
Semantic
type of declarative memory containing general knowledge, such as knowledge of language and information learned in formal education.
Implicit/Nondeclarative Memory
a type of long-term memory including memory for skills, procedures, habits, and conditioned responses. These memories are not conscious but are implied to exist because they affect conscious behavior.
Organization of long-term memory:
Semantic network model
Parallel distributed processing model
Semantic network model
model of memory organization that assumes information is stored in the brain in a connected fashion, with concepts that are related stores physically closer to each other than concepts that are not highly related.
Retrieval cues
a stimulus for remembering
Encoding specificity
the tendency for memory of information to be improved if related information (such as surroundings or physiological state) that is available when the memory is first formed is also available when the memory is being retrieved.
State-dependent learning
memories formed during a particular physiological or psychological state will be easier to remember while in a similar state.
Context-dependent learning may refer to the _____ a person is in when they are learning _______.
physical surroundings; specific information
Recall
the type of memory retrieval in which the information to be retrieved must be pulled from memory with very few external cues.
—> “Tip of the tongue” phenomenon
Serial Position Effect
the tendency of information at the beginning and end of a body of information to be remembered more accurately than information in the middle of the body of information.
Primacy Effect
the tendency to remember information at the beginning of a body of information better than the information that follows.
Recency Effect
the tendency to remember information at the end of a body of information better than the information that precedes it.
Recognition
the ability to match a piece of information or a stimulus to a stored image or fact.
False positive
recognition isn’t foolproof; this occurs when a person thinks that he or she has recognized (or even recalled) something or someone but does not have that or someone in memory.
Automatic Encoding
tendency of certain kinds of information to enter long-term memory with little or no effortful encoding.
Flashbulb Memories
a type of automatic encoding that occurs because an unexpected event has strong emotional associations for the person remembering it.
Constructive Processing
referring to the retrieval of memories in which those memories are altered, revised, or influenced by newer information.
Hindsight Bias
the tendency to falsely believe, through revision of older memories to include newer information, that one could have correctly predicted the outcome of an event.
Misinformation Effect
the tendency of misleading information presented after an event to alter the memories of the event itself.
Levels-of-Processing Model
model of memory that assumes information that is more “deeply processed,” or processed according to its meaning rather than just the sound or physical characteristics of the word or words, will be remembered more efficiently and for a longer period of time.
Parallel Distributed Processing Model
a model of memory in which memory processes are proposed to take place at the same time over a large network of neural connections.
Ebbinghaus
one of the first researchers to study forgetting
Curve of Forgetting
a graph showing a distinct pattern in which forgetting is very fast within the first hour after learning a list then tapers off gradually.
Distributed Practice
spacing the study of material to be remembered by including breaks between study periods (more effective)
Massed Practice
The attempt to study a body of material all at once (less effective).
Reasons for forgetting:
Encoding failure
Decay/disuse
Interference
Encoding Failure
failure to process information into memory.
Decay
loss of memory due to the passage of time, during which the memory trace is not used.
Disuse
another name for decay, assuming that memories that are not used will eventually decay and disappear.
Practice interference
memory problem that occurs when older information prevents or interferes with the learning or retrieval of newer information.
Retroactive interference
memory problem that occurs when newer information prevents or interferes with the retrieval of older information.
Consolidation
the changes that take place in the structure and functioning of neurons when a memory is formed.
Hippocampus
the part of the brain that is responsible for the formation of new long-term declarative memories.
Retrograde Amnesia
loss of memory from the point of some injury or trauma backwards, or loss of memory for the past.
Anterograde Amnesia
loss of memory from the point of injury or trauma forward, or the inability to form new long-term memories.
Infantile Amnesia
the inability to retrieve memories before the age of 3.
Alzheimer’s Disease
The primary memory problem at the start is anterograde amnesia.
Retrograde amnesia occurs after a long period of anterograde amnesia.
Thinking/Cognition
mental activity that goes on in the brain when a person is organizing and attempting to understand information and communicating information to others.
Mental Images
mental representations that stand for objects or events and have a picture-like quality.
Concepts
Another form of mental representation, which involves ideas that represent a class or category of objects, events, or activities.
—> used to think about objects/events without having to think about all the specific examples of the category; allows for the identification of new objects and events that may fit the concept.
Different Levels of Concepts
Superordinate (More general)
Ex: Writing Utensil
Basic Level
Ex: Pencil
Subordinate (More specific)
Ex: Mechanical Pencil
Formal Concepts
concepts defined by specific rules or features and are quite rigid. Ex. How we identify shapes like squares.
Natural Concepts
concepts people form not as a result of a strict set of rules, but rather as the result of experiences with the concepts in the real world. They are “fuzzier” than natural concepts.
Prototypes
an example of a concept that closely matches the defining characteristics of the concept.
—> · Develop according to the exposure a person has to objects in that category. Ex. People in the US may name a fruit like an apple, and people in Brazil may name a fruit like maracuja.
Problem Solving
the process of cognition that occurs when a goal must be reached by thinking and behaving in certain ways.
Ex. Thinking of how to cut a recipe in half.
—> One aspect of decision making.
Decision Making
the process of cognition that involves identifying, evaluating, and choosing among several alternatives.
Trial and Error
also known as mechanical solution, it is a problem-solving method in which one possible solution after another is tried until a successful solution is found.
Algorithm
very specific, step-by-step procedures for solving certain types of problems. Always results in a correct solution if there is a correct solution to be found and you have enough time to find it. Ex. Mathematical formulas
Heuristics
an educated guess based on prior experiences that help narrow down the possible solutions for a problem. Also known as a “rule of thumb.” Ex. Typing a question into Google instead of reading a whole book about the topic.
Representativeness Heuristic
the assumption that any object (or person) sharing characteristics with the members of a particular category is also a member of that category.
Availability Heuristic
estimating the frequency or likelihood of an event based on how easy it is to recall relevant information from memory or how easy it is for us to think of related examples.
Insight
when a solution suddenly comes to mind. Ex. An “aha!” moment.
Convergent Thinking
a type of thinking in which a problem is seen as having only one answer, and all lines of thinking will eventually lead to that single answer, using previous knowledge and logic.
Divergent Thinking
a type of thinking in which a person starts from one point and comes up with many different ideas or possibilities based on that point.
Creativity
the process of solving problems by combining ideas or behavior in new ways.
Mental Set
the tendency for people to persist in using problem-solving patterns that have worked for them in the past.
Functional Fixedness
a block to problem-solving that comes from thinking about objects in terms of only their typical functions. Ex. Not being able to piece together that you can use a butter knife as a temporary screwdriver.
Confirmation Bias
the tendency to search for evidence that fits one’s beliefs while ignoring any evidence to the contrary. Ex. Anti-vaxxers go after any scrap of information they can find to continue believing in their delusions.
Intelligence
the ability to learn from one’s experiences, acquire knowledge, and use resources effectively in adapting to new situations or solving problems.
Spearman’s Theory
Intelligence as two different abilities (S factor and G factor).
G Factor
general intelligence, or the ability to reason and solve problems.
S Factor
specific intelligence, the ability to excel in certain areas.
Gardner’s Theory
Believes reason, logic, and knowledge are different aspects of intelligence along with several other abilities
—> Verbal/linguistic, musical, logical/mathematical, visual/spatial, movement, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalist, existentialist.
Sternberg’s Theory
triarchic theory of intelligence: there are three kinds of intelligence: analytical, creative, and practical.
Analytical Intelligence
the ability to break problems down into component parts, or analysis, for problem solving.
Creative Intelligence
the ability to deal with new and different concepts and to come up with new ways of solving problems.
Practical Intelligence
the ability to use information to get along in life and become successful.
Mental Age
French psychologist Alfred Binet decided that the key element to be tested was a child’s mental age or the average age at which children could successfully answer a particular level of questions.
Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
a number representing a measure of intelligence, resulting from the division of one’s mental age by one’s chronological age and then multiplying that quotient by 100.
—> IQ = mental age/chronological age x 100
Wechsler Tests Versions
WAIS-IV: Adolescents & Adults 16-90 years old
WISC-V: Children & Adolescents 6-16 years old
WPPSI-IV: Toddlers & Children 2.5-7.5 years old
WASI-II: Children, Adolescents, & Adults 6-90 years old
Scores distributed on Bell Curve
Tested for: Verbal comprehension, working memory, perceptual reasoning, processing speed
Standardization
refers to the process of giving the test to a large group of people that represents the kind of people for whom the test is designed.
—> Establishment of consistent and standard methods of test administration.
Validity
the degree to which a test actually measures what it’s supposed to measure.
Reliability
the tendency of a test to produce the same scores again and again each time it is given to the same people.
Intellectual Disability
a condition in which a person’s behavioral and cognitive skills exist at an earlier developmental stage than the skills of others who are the same chronological age; may also be referred to as developmentally delayed. This condition was formerly known as mental retardation.
Giftedness
the two percent of the population falling on the upper end of the normal curve and typically possessing an IQ of 130 or above.
Terman’s Research
the gifted were socially well-adjusted and often skilled leaders, and average in height, weight, and physical attractiveness. Ended the myth of weak geniuses.
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