MMW 13 Murilllo - Midterm

ahl-al-dhimma

protected people living in Muslim-conquered lands

* toleration and supervision of non-muslims
* rulers more welcoming of monotheists
* freedoms of religion for Jews and Christians as “people of the book”…however, reduced legal status, institutionalized discrimination (special tax), but elites could participate in administration and mixed marriages were allowed
* segregation but cohabitation

convivencia

Spanish term for “peaceful coexistence”

Refers to time of Reconquista with peaceful, symbiotic relationships between Christians, Jews, and Muslims Muslim Umayyad or Moors and Berbers Epicenter + Corodoba, Andalusia in Muslim Spain

Convivencia vs. daily tensions = tense coexistence

Used in Medieval Iberia; promoted multiculturalism

As we saw through the painting of Muslim and Christians play chess together

Tomb of Ferdinand III - Inscription on tombs that were written in 5 different languages

Fez

* City in Africa (Morocco) that was a trading hub
* Was the cosmopolitan center of trade
* Capital of education in Medieval world
* Library w/ thousands of manuscripts
* Gateway for transfer of classical knowledge to the west
* Largest market in the world at the time
* It attracted merchants and craftsmen from across many regions which led to a lot of cultural exchange

Gunpowder

Invented in China (9th century)

Travels to Afro-Eurasia along Silk Road in Middle Wast and Iberia (13th century)

Made prior fortifications obsolete (tall skinny walls → thick short walls)

Prolonged extensive cannon warfare “Hand Cannons”

Ottoman Empire adopts it from its preceding lances and spears

One of the factors behind the rise of “gunpowder societies”

More deals wars; rise of centralized states

Changes in shop design

Ottomans used it to expand their empire; ruled Black Sea, Red Sea route

Johannes Gutenberg

* Made a block printing press out of a wine/olive press (Mainz, Germany) c. 1440
* Was moveable metal type
* Made books easier to access (though still not a lot of people could read)
* Led to 250 presses in Europe by 1500
* By 17th century, printer matter had become part of populate culture. The social status of occupations connected with pricing was increased.

Printed map became the key to strategic dominance

Primary source = an ordinance

Kaffa

* There was a battle between Genoese merchants and the Mongols in Kaffa in the 12th century
* The Mongols catapulted plague-infested bodies over the walls and into the city to infect people on the inside
* Some Genoese escaped on boats, likely brought the disease to the west

Mamluk Empire

* Cairo is located in this empire’s territory and was the trading capital of the Islamic world
* Dictated the control of the influential Red Sea Route because that was the epicenter of Islam world trade
* Mamluk was defeated by Ottoman in 1516 and lost control of Egypt and Syria
* Egypt was already weakened by suffering loss in trade by the superior Italian trading and luxury goods and Ottomans had gunpowder weapons
* (13th - 16th century) Also known as the “Defender of Islam”. It’s important to note that different ethnic groups controlled the sultanate before and after the plague. Example of an area that was at a disadvantage during the military revolution because they are destroyed the Ottoman Empire due to its access to gunpowder

Medieval Warm Period

Unusually mild and stable weather in North Atlantic from 950 to 1250

Affected much of Europe, North America, and China

Few May frosts between 1100 and 1300

Warm summer weather

Agricultural production - dependable and high yield harvests with weather conducive to growing crops (more vineyards with lots of sun) → increase population from lots of food, lack of invasion, social stability aristocrats lived in rural areas near towns, gained immunity living near cattle with disease

Some modest technological innovations like the plough, mills, and manuals

Population of Europe rose from 56 to 79 million people in 1000-1300 CE develop new settlements with deforestation cause good weather able to grow cops on marginal soils and higher altitudes → new villages in remote areas (urbanization)

Ming Dynasty

1368 - 1644

Came into power after the Mongol Yuan Dynasty (able to help of plagued and malnourished mongols + feuding and rebellion)

Re-established ethnic Chinese traditions

Ming rule over all Mongols was limited

Theory that Ming trade was limited because Ming China was preoccupied with Mongol threat at the borders and focused on Chinese values

Ming China was anti-commercial meaning only officially recognized trade missions could enter, edict stating private foreign trade was illegal, the elites looked down on trade and cultural exchange

During this time, China’s main source of income was agricultural

Moluccas (Maluku Islands)

* Origin of Mediterranean Connection
* Cloves and other spices only found here
* Spices very rare and coveted
* Used in Medieval /early modern cooking
* Not many resources but very important
* (13th - 16th century) Port cities were a key part of this connection because they created large trade center in which goods from foreign places would be transported across the Mediterranean. Significant because it signifies a time where maritime travel is important for areas to gain goods that aren’t found in the area they reside in.

Mongol Eurasia

unified in 1206 under Chinggis Khan (Central EU, Baghdad, and China) divided into 4 khanates

open to foreigners, trade, and travel (Marco Polo, missionaries, traders…)

more rights/freedoms for women in nomadic society as they played big roles like taking care of animals

DDR - Deployment, Displacement, Replacement

Mongols from Asian Steppe

Masters of military tech because of stirrups (cavalry army)

Height of power/most territory is 1270

Murad III

A famous Islamic Sultan

Importance due to the allowance of printed books

Different at the time because there was mass animosity towards printing in the rest of the world

Originally only allowed secular (secular academy) texts to be printed (such as STEM books which Muslims were famous for)

Smart to prevent the uproar of printing religious texts because the populate thought of the time was that people believed printers would print pictures of Mohammed himself

“others”

Conspiracy of Jews and lepers against the Christian population

Political states started to coalesce and define themselves in opposition to “others”

Institutional violence used against others to unify people, neutralize opposition to government, and monitor others

Religion was a marker of social difference and became the paramount authority in Medieval period

People became more militant in their faith

Entire communities essentialized based on arbitrary differences

Labelling of “others” leads to rise of a money economy which disrupts the status quo increasing opportunities for social mobility

Markers of difference to identify others were physical characteristics, phenotype, social practices, religion, culture, labor, and dress

Intolerance led to expulsions and massacres of Jews

Primary source = communities of violence

Ottoman Empire

Descended from the Oghuz- confederation of nomadic Turkoman groups

Forcefully spreading Islam under Osman (r. 1299 - 1326)

Osman develops Ottomans into powerful fighting force

Successive territorial gains - areas where Black Death has taken toll on population

Occupied what was once the old Byzantine empire

Ottomans conquer Byzantine empire with the capture of Constantinople in 1453

This conquest marks the end of the Medieval period and the beginning of the Early Modern Period

With the control of Byzantine territories, the Ottomans shift the dynamics of Mediterranean trade networks

Black Sea which had access to Asian land routes now only allowed for Ottoman merchants

Control Straits of Gibraltar

Ottomans used Venetian trade agents which creates a stronger monopoly on Mediterranean trade

The Genoese are blocked out of trade routes because of the Ottoman- Venetian partnership so they find alternate routes to Asia

vegan to limit Italian middlemen (previous in power) to be out of trade → Venetians merchants, spread Islam with Muslim merchants

Therefore controlled treaties like forced countries pay fee if want to trade there or forbid other countries if at war with them → Spain and Portugal forbid and lead to Columbia/ age of exploration to look for other opportunities to trade

Cairo: training capital of the Islamic world

Therefore convert people to Islam via: trade network, conquest and invasion, holy war as reaction/defense to Christian crusades

Pax Mongolica

First of its kind in the old world (novel international dissemination)

Facilitated cultural exchange and ideas globally

Cultural integration, sharing ideas, tastes, and fashion

Adapted technology/ideas: like Chinese motifs shown in art across Mongol Empire

Led to Age of Exploration “western exploitation”

where asian goods reach EU for first time creating demand → inspire others to find faster routes to Asia to get more goods

Dissemination of ideas: through crossing borders (paisa)

people could move easily through borders because under 1 rule recruitment: skilled people with different ideological and religious positions because mongols employed recruited diverse and educated advisors such as Confucian scholars, and Tibetan Buddhist monks

Created cosmopolitan culture because of relocation and fusion of many distinct social groups such as doctors, teachers, scientists, weaves (influence of popular textiles) and engineers and most important merchants used banknotes/paper currency across China → broke down cultural boundaries

Encourages massive transregional trade because traveler’s station (yams) along Silk Road caravan trails

constructed road networks + traveler’s stations (protects + place to sleep + change horse) → faster/more efficient travel

During the Pax Mongolica there was mass hospital and general openness toward foreigner and foreign influences (welcomes Marco Polo and Ibn Battuta and the Christian missionary in one of those first texts) (freedom of religion Tibetan Buddhism, early (Greek) Christianity, and Islam)

Reconquest

Was a centuries long process - c. 711 - 1492 that took place in Iberia (Spain, Portugal)

actually about money/trade - some fought against each other, like Muslim Granada allied with Christians to take Seville → allowed to stay

Northern Christian Kingdoms wrested control of the Iberian peninsula from Muslims kingdoms

Difference: Islam conquered to spread faith vs. Christianity to recover holy islands lost to Islam, expand Christendom/Christian kingdoms, and enforce orthodoxy with inquisition

Famous figure - St. James (Santiago) - “Matamoros” - killed of Muslims groups came together in crusades → economic ties between Muslim and Christina states and the rise of Italian city states as Venetians and Genoese middleman of eco. Exchanges Coexistence under conquest between 2 groups:

Ex. Christian king authorized build of Jewish synagogue by Islamic architect + some people used 2 names (Jewish and Islamic)

Reconquest culture:

Warfare became a way of life: strong military culture

Created a large noble class (hidalgos) - many in genteel poverty (success in warfare translates to honors by king but not much money)

People have financial incentive to go conquer in Latin America

Settlers as immigrants taking over land

Tribute from subject peoples - people who aren’t Christian would be taxed

Belief that Christians favored by their God - religious justification for injustice

Red Sea Route

Controlled by Mamluk Sultanate (Murad III) whose capital was Cairo, the trading capital of the Islamic world

Links Indian Ocean w/ Middle East and Europe with Venetians functioning as the middlemen

Trade goods: linen, sugar, spices sent to Europe

Stern Post Rudder

Rudders gave crew more control over boat on open water → steer easier against wind

Who used these though? (

Trans-Saharan Trade

Bridged West Africa to North Africa and Europe

Established by Muslim traders, 7th century, seeking gold and searching for ways to cross Sahara

Eurasian demands for gold drives demand for routes into Africa gold mines

Promotes exchange between North and Sub-Saharan Africa, this trade stimulates cultural exchange and connectivity

Creation of great states and cities driven by trade (eg. Fez, Marrakesh, Timbuktu)

Ideas and products spread by rulers, artists, scholars, and merchants

Islam and Islamic practices/customs spread using trade route

Saharan commodities were gold, salt, and slaves

Gold moved from West Africa to North Africa which was mined by African slaves

Salt moved from North Africa to West Africa

West African slaves sold to North Africa

Yams

Provided by ruling Mongolians of the Pax Mongolica (due to increases trade tax revenues as well as tributes (for safety and protection) from the conquered civilizations)

Yams: traveler’s stations all along Silk Road caravan trails

Assisted protection from bandits or other potential dangers of long distance travelers and merchants

Provided food and water

Location to rest or trade out horses

Provided place to sleep at night

Gave accessibility and incentive to travel long distance which would otherwise require extensive amounts of time

Temujin

Also known as Chinggis Khan (“ocean ruler/”fierce ruler”), Temujin united the Mongol Empire from 1162 - 1227. Temujin aided in globalization of Afro-Eurasia and turned the Mongol Empire into a continental empire through successful conquests.

Pax Mongolica

stands for "Mongolian Piece" which was an era that promoted trade and travel. By facilitating the increased interaction with outsiders/foreigners, the Mongol Empire was able to integrate the ideas, tastes and fashions of different regions that resulted in cosmopolitan cities open to foreign travelers. \n trade was particularly stimulated during Pax Mongolica through safe conduct passports, yams (resting stops), and caravans.

ethnogenesis

Is the creation of new cultures from people mingling in different places as a result of people staying at their location when outsiders conquer their land. This was an important aspect of how the Mongol Empire contributed to the cultural change & integration of Afro-Eurasia as it allowed for the connection of different cultures (whether it was forced or not)

Paiza

was a mongol safe conduct pass port that was introdued in the late 13th century. It was given to diplomats, kingdom administration, and well established merchants (e.g. Marco Polo and Ibn Battuta) that granted them protection under the Mongol Empire/ (people who did not respect people with the pass were guilty of offense). It helped to promote trade.

Ibn Battuta

was a medieval traveler with a paiza who visited most of the Islamic world in his travels and wrote about his travels in a log after being hired by the Sultan of Morocco. Throughout his travels, he seemed to value sharing his knowledge with others as he would often meet up with kings, professors, and scholars along the way and often prayed with them.

Merchant's time and Church's time

written by Jacques Le Goff, the article explains the shift of time going from "God's time" to the merchant's time". Under the church's time, time was determined by God and began at the start of your birth and ended at your salvation. However, with the introduction of textile mills and the evolution of work, time shifted to the ownership of merchants who needed to regulate the amount of hours they worked which eventually became the 24 hour clock.

Sahel Grasslands

One of the internal barriers of the Sahara that discouraged people from engaging in Trans-Saharan trade. While the Sahara route was over 1000 miles and took about 40 days to cross, people engaged in Trans-saharan trade anyways which resulted in the creation of great states & cities, the dissemination of ideas from rulers artists and scholars, the diffusion of islam, and the increasing connection between africa and the world

King Mansa Musa

ruling from 1312 to 1337, he was the wealthiest man at the time since he was able to benefit majorly from trans saharan trade; West africa controlled the gold supply which was the main demand/drive for trans-saharan trade and the main source for the medieval world. In addition, Mali was had key sites of intellectual exchange with centers for book trades (ahem ahem timbuktu). On a pilgrimage from 1324 to 1325, king mansa musa came back with books and scholars which helped with cultural diffusion.

“Mediterranean Connection”

refers to how the Mediterranean ocean was ideal of maritime trade.. Originating from the port cities of the maluku islands (spice islands, muslim and indian vessels would deliver spices and other products to africa, the red sea, and the persian gulf where egyptian and syrian ports would then distribute the spices to european markets. This is significant as there was a global demand for indian ocean goods as indian ocean trade increased in volume and strategic importance after the Black Death.

Ottoman Empire

conquered the plague-weakened byzantine & serbian states but was unable to replae the local population. The Oghuz, which was a confederation of nomadic Turkoman groups, began to forcefully spread Islam under the ruler Osman (r. 1299-1326) and eventually developed the ottoman empire into a power fighting force. -> this helped make muslims NO LONGER a minority in their own lands. Ottoman expansion shifted power in the Islamic wold as they took control of the Mediterranean and destabilized europe by creating a large stumbling block to european trade with the far east.

Venice

was its own nation state that was dependent from Italy. The strategic location of their navy and military in the red sea allowed them to become the ideal middleman for trade between byzantine and north africa allowing venice to grow in power and gain contorl of trade

Fall of Constantinople

happened on a tuesday of may 29, 1453.. The byzantine empire fell to the ottoman turks and signified the end of the medieval period. The fall of Constantinople marked the height of the renaissance whih brought about: changed consumption patterns (stingy spending ->lavish spending), italy that was once hit HARD by the black death and lost profits from trade BOUNCED BACK through bankers. The fall signaled a shift in control of trade networks and military strategy.

Black Death

killed up to 1/4 of the populations of Afro-Eurasia during the mid 1300s. The disease, that came from wild rodents that transmitted through fleas, caused destabilization of political, economical, and social order. Those who contracted the black death had buboes form on their bodies which eventually lead to death. Since the Black Death traveled along trade routes, trade and cultural exchange was halted for a long period of time due to fear of contact. While christian society saw the plague as God's punishment for sin and responded through scapegoating the marginalized & violence , muslim communities viewed the plague as a manifestation of god's will but not as punishment

Cannons

gunpower was invented in china during the 9th century but gunpowder cannons were developed until 1350. They were critical siege weapons that revolutionized military strategy as cannons were stronger than lances and pikes, and could level traditional fortified walls in one blow-> lead to the new design of walls to be lower and thickly fortified with earth. there was a rise for industrial firearms and people started to want guns like they wanted gold which disrupted the traditional balance of power

Indian Ocean Trade

**i**ncreased in volume and strategic importance after the Black Death (aka the mongol collapse because even the mighty mongols couldnt handle #death). It was important as Indian Ocean Trade helped to spread islam across the ocean allowing for muslim mercantile communities to appear in india, east africa, and southeast asia.

Mamluk Sultanate

known as the "Defender of Islam". Sultanates were regional dynasties that were a result of fragmentation within the muslim world (which occurred due to centuries long armed struggles between christians and muslims). while islam conquered to spread their faith, christians conquered areas that they lost to islam. The crusades show how afro-eurasia was able to unify and divide as christians and muslims had similar reasons for doing so but carried out the procedure differently

ahl-al-dhimma

the practice of protecting christians under muslim rule (or more broadly, protecting people living in conquered lands). under ahl-al-dhimma, people saw a toleration & supervision of non muslims, muslim rulers were more welcoming to monotheists, and jews/christians were referred to as "dhimmi" (people of the book) and allowed to still practice their own religions. This is important as it emphasizes the big contrast between how christians and muslims viewed coexistene. While christians viewed outsiders as dangerous and were intolerent, muslims did not see outsiders as dangerous and were tolerant of them (and even profited off them(

Reconquest

a centuries long process (718-1492) between the muslims and christians where christians of the northern kingdoms of iberia wanted to seize control of the iberian peninsula from muslim kingdoms, ultimately reating a warrior society in iberia. this lead to the rise of a military based culture and a creation of a large noble class (hildagos) that ironically lived in refined poverty. Despite this, many cities in the iberian peninsula had christians and muslims coexist (whether it was christians under muslim rule or muslims under christian rule). Overall. the Reconquista was a preedent for how Europeans would conquer and colonize America.

Print Revolution

brought print culture into aspects of everyday life. The print revolution was dependent on technology and social conditions but was able to standardize and preserve knowledge. Medieval forms of communication included oral, visual, ritual, and written (where written was mainly done through manuscripts). Written communication was able to evolve as manuscripts that were mainly available only for the elite, that used to be copied and illustrated by hand eventually evolved to block printing that was still exclusive mainly to elites (done first by china and japan during the 8th century), to moveable type (done by the chinese in 1401, and korean metal type in the 13 century, and evntually to europe in 1440). Written communication became much more mass produced/common when technology advanced (more maps, more books, more written laws) The printing revolution changed the nature of communication as people where now able to have mass communication and communication over long distances and was also able to erode the power of the nobility

Caravel

was a late 15th century portugese innovation (it was a ship) that allowed people to travel further than they ever did before. The caravels were speedy and maneuvarble due to their lateen sails. they had a large capacity which allowed for more room for supplies and were used by columbus to make contact with the americas.