POLS 200 Exam 2

survivor of the Holocaust

philosopher and political thinker

1906-1975

Who was Hannah Arendt?

a much more bold political thinker compared to most

more personal experience about how totalitarianism comes to be

focused on man in singular but in our shared existence

Why is Arendt important?

understanding requires an endless commitment to thinking

thinking is the process of self-understanding

thinking is a conversation w/ onself

Arendt’s idea of thinking

wandering endlessly up and down a staircase with nothing to hold onto

a way of thinking without holding onto tradition

thinking without a banister

partaking in critical thinking was important to claim personal responsibility in the face of fascism

why did Arendt believe that everyone not just intellectuals should engage in thinking?

solitude allows for privacy and the ability to be alone with oneself so you can open up your mind to think

Why is solitude essential to thinking?

we are constantly working out what it means to be a person

2 in 1 dialogue

cannot look to the past to explain things

look at history fragmentally to bring to surface those rich and strange gems that might offer some illumination

pearl diving

thinking has the ability to uproot what we believe

“there are no dangerous thoughts; thinking itself is dangerous”

person confronts their experiences, beliefs, and what they think they know

why does thinking have the power to make us come undone?

how to think

Is Arendt more interested in teaching us what to think or how to think? 

felt that it put her in a particular box

doesn’t allow for movement and thought

ppl become okay with untrue statements bc it fits their ideology

Why does Arendt reject ideological thinking and identity politics?  How do these undermine our individuality and critical thinking? 

As humans, we are born with the capacity for new beginnings; we have the capacity to act anew and afresh; and the consequences of our actions are never fully predictable or predetermined 

natality

experience

What does Arendt claim is the basic subject of our thought?

the most radical denial of freedom

a force which abolishes both classes and civil society and which transforms all social groups into a structureless mass of individuals

What is a totalitarian government?  How does it arise? 

claims to have discovered and to execute the laws of nature/history that are based upon perennial movement

sacrifices the individual for the sake of the “species”

substitutes terror (instead of law) as the essence of gov’t and as a tool for subjugating its citizens 

erases any possibility for spontaneity in society, in speaking, acting

atomization of the masses

radical acts of erasure of remembrance 

uses techniques of exploitation, suppression, murder and creates a complicity of the victims in their own demise 

morally ruins both the victims and the perpetrators before it terminates them 

seeks to fabricate the truth 

slowly erode the abilities of individuals to question immoral actions and practices and to think for themselves 

claims the right to global rule/conquest 

totalitarianism characteristics and aims

discovered that governments have both structures and associated principles of action 

Republics – based upon virtue and love of equality 

Monarchies – based upon honor and passion for distinction 

Tyrannies – based upon the will to dominate springing from fear (despair over the impossibility of action), anxiety, loneliness, and impotence 

How does Montesquieu influence Arendt’s thinking about forms of government?

divides structures of government into two basic categories

Republican forms – has separated/divided powers 

Despotic forms – has powers (executive, legislative, judgment) consolidated   

How does Kant influence Arendt’s thinking about forms of government?

__**totalitarian**__

want global rule

take power away from ppl

gets rid of ppl’s uniqueness

leader believes they are puppet for natural law

rely on brainwashing and propaganda

__**tyrannical**__

wants to dominate own country

want power for themseleves

How do totalitarian governments differ from tyrannical governments?

organized ppl according to race criteria

developed out of one-party dictatorship

happened in 1938 during 1st year of war

global rule

Nazi Germany

killed off classes to make a classless system

developed out of one-party dictatorship

happened in 1930 after Moscow Trials

global rule

Stalinist Russia

Montesquieu’s principles of action is replaced by ideology as the driving force 

Only isolated individuals can be totally dominated 

Terror causes citizens to not what to fight back for fear of punishment

What roles do ideology, terror, and loneliness play in totalitarian regimes?

Individuals stop thinking according to categories of truth and lies 

Rationalism is no longer a metric  

Morally ruins both victims and perpetrators 

Radical acts of erasure of memory 

Individuals become superfluous/lose dignity/lose individuality 

What effects does totalitarianism have on its citizens/subjects? 

normalization of evil

used towards Eichmann (person responsible for concentration camps)

actions were thoughtless and a bureaucratic mindset rather than just evil

never had self-understanding conversation and was constantly surrounded by ppl who never questioned him

brainwashed by propaganda so couldn’t have mental conflict

banality of evil

St. Augustine

The City of God and Confessions

St. Augustine’s political legacy

earthly city vs heavenly city

political realist

state must follow requirements of justice

God ordained body that controls the ppl through its armies and its ability to command punishment

What was the basic purpose/function of the state according to Augustine? 

to live a virtuous and good life

righteousness and union w/ God

What is the basic purpose of our life as a human according to Augustine? 

honoring the ways of God while also having sinful ways through human nature from the original sins of Adam and Eve

Why does Augustine often make reference to an interior “civil war” that characterizes our life as humans?

unable to reach true justice or true good w/o honoring God

How did the concept of original sin impact Augustine’s political philosophy? 

one cannot understand and enact the good simply by their own rational intuition but it must come through accepting the gift of salvation from God

Why does Abramson assert that Augustine “is a philosopher of the will’s resistance to rational knowledge?”

possible bc human being are capable of uniting in friendship and community (social creatures)

necessary bc it provides control for humans love of things and being astray

According to Abramson, why is politics possible for Augustine? Why is it necessary?

peace

If politics cannot bring us justice, what can it bring us according to Augustine? 

love of God means love of each other (love thy neighbor) so morality and justice can sprout from the community and friendship of loving God

Why did Augustine argue that the love of God was the central principle of morality and justice? 

supreme good- eternal live/salvation

supreme evil- damnation

What was the supreme good according to Augustine, and what was the supreme evil? 

justice is giving everyone what they deserve and it is not possible on Earth

What is “justice” according to Augustine and is it possible on this earth? 

a kingdom w/o justice is robbing us of our freedom, liberty, and devotion to God

Why did Augustine say, “Justice being taken away, then, what are kingdoms but great robberies?” 

kingdoms- no semblance of agreement on ruling only lust for power

Republics- embody an agreement btwn rulers and ruled although cannot have true justice

What are the differences between kingdoms and republics according to Augustine? 

God did not intend for one mortal to have dominion over another

slavery is not natural and only comes as a result of sin

What is Augustine’s basic viewpoint on slavery? Did St. Augustine believe slavery was natural, or a result of sin? 

city of God and city of man

According to Augustine, citizenship is of two kinds…

belong to those guided by the love of God carried as far as contempt of self

looks for reward in fellowship of saints (God may be in all) 

What characterized the city of God (the heavenly city)?  Who are its citizens?

belong to all those individuals who were ruled by self-love to reach the point of contempt for God

lust for domination (love of ruling) 

What characterized the earthly city (the city of man)?  Who are its citizens?

nothing on this Earth will last eternally other than faith

humans are not immortal nor are earthly objects

According to Augustine, why should we not expect to find lasting happiness in this earthly life? 

St. Aquinas

Summa Theologica and On Kingship

scholar

1225-1274

synthesized Aristotle and Christianity

Who is St. Thomas Aquinas and why is he important? 

true

St. Thomas Aquinas argued that church and state play complimentary roles in advancing human fulfillment. 

the state should secure the common good by keeping the peace, organizing the activities of citizens into harmonious pursuits, providing for the resources to sustain life, and preventing obstacles to the good life

what the state should do according to Aquinas

law

“an ordinance of reason for the common good, made by him who has care of the community, and promulgated.” 

eternal law

whole community of universe is governed by divine reason 

reason of God

natural law

participation of eternal law in rational creature (humans)

helps achieve cardinal values of justice, temperance, courage, and prudence 

represents humanity’s rational knowledge of the good

human law

specific statutes of gov

derived from general precepts of natural law

if skews away from natural law it becomes a perversion of a law 

divine law

directing ppl to their proper end

found in revelation and scriptures

helps achieve theological virtues of faith, hope, and love 

preservation of life

propagation and education of offspring

pursuit of truth

pursuit of peaceful society

What are the basic natural laws according to Aquinas? 

they violate natural law which are principles of God’s intentions so it is not moral

Why did Aquinas argue that unjust human law are perversions of law and thus are not binding upon us? 

ideal- monarchy

practical- mixture of monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy

monarchy can degenerate into tyranny

Describe St. Thomas Aquinas’ preferred form of government. In an ideal world?  In a practical sense? Why? 

reinforce one another

faith guides reasoning

reasoning clarifies and demystifies our faith

need both to fulfill natural and supernatural ends

philosophy and theology played complementary roles in humans finding truth

How did St. Thomas Aquinas’ attempt to synthesize faith and reason?  What was his view on the relationship of faith to reason/ of philosophy to theology? 

rebellion should only occur if tyrant is affecting a large proportion of the public authority

many times those that defeat the tyrant become worse

tolerating a mild tyrant is better bc it can cause more problems and fighting

if no human aid, God will take care of him

Under what circumstances does Aquinas allow for rebellion against a tyrant? Why does he caution restraint against this course of conduct?   What can you do if no human aid is forthcoming against a tyrant? 

happiness is a person’s purpose to a heavenly supernatural end

What is humanity’s basic purpose/end according to Aquinas? 

provide for the common good

What is the purpose/role of the state according to Aquinas? 

allows man to be accountable for his actions and allows man to progress in knowledge and spirituality to be closer to God

will inclines a person toward achievement of good so if act is not done on free will is done for bad

Why does Aquinas argue that God gives human free will?  How does he argue that acts cannot be moral if they are not free? 

just cause

right intention

lawful authority

What are the 3 basic principles of Aquinas’ just war theory? 

Aristotle

Aquinas Christianized the philosophy of

lifelong learning is important

faith and reason are not mutually exclusive

wrestling with truth is noble and necessary

What are three life lessons we can learn from St. Thomas Aquinas? 

to gain control over the ppl you rule and assert yourself in your place over them

What is the purpose of politics and the exercise of power according to Machiavelli? 

lion; fox

lion cannot protect himself from traps and fox cannot protect himself from wolves

Machiavelli argued that a political leader should be as beastly as a _______________  and as crafty as a ________________.  Why?

must be cruel and break promises when necessary

appear merciful, faithful, truthful, humane, and religious but not actually be them

unscrupulous

schemer

intriguer

consolidate all power in one’s hand

flexible and able to change w/ the times

strive for common good even if not morally good

What characteristics/qualities/virtues should a leader/ruler/prince possess according to Machiavelli? 

appear to be

allows citizens to see ruler as good even if he is doing actions that aren’t

According to Machiavelli, was it more important that a leader be virtuous or appear to be virtuous?  Why is it so important to Machiavelli for a leader to cultivate a particular image and reputation amongst the people? 

military valor and using prudence and pragmatism in adapting to reality (sell soul and sacrifice for common good)

Christians are too moral to get anything done or to assure peace in society bc humans are too self-centered

What is Machiavelli’s definition of virtue? Why is Machiavelli critical of the Christian virtues? 

self-interested, self-regarding, and corrupt

allows him to set aside morality when in political situations

society is corrupt so needs a strong, absolute gov to control it

What was Machiavelli’s view of human nature? How does that view impact his political philosophy? 

love is held by chain of obligation which can be broken but fear is held by a dread of punishment which never fails

more likely to wrong someone you love bc you know they will forgive you

Machiavelli counseled that it is better for a leader to be feared than to be loved. Why?

feared means nobody will question you and will follow orders while hated means that they will stop listening to you and try to overthrow you

Why does Machiavelli argue that while it is good for a ruler to be feared, it is bad for a ruler to be hated?

not taking subjects property

not taking women from subjects

do not be indecisive or neutral

According to Machiavelli, what steps should a leader take to avoid being hated by the people? 

if a goal is for the common good then any method of getting it is acceptable

be cruel when necessary

Machiavelli argues that the ends justify the means in politics.  What does he mean by this?

Machiavelli

“The best fortress is to be found in the love of the people, for although you may have fortresses they will not save you if you are hated by the people”

war

best to practice and focus on war in times of peace so you are always ready when an attack occurs

According to Machiavelli, a prince ought to make his main object of study the study of _____________.  Why?

Machiavelli

“For among other evils caused by being disarmed, it renders you contemptible; which is one of those disgraceful things which a prince must guard against … Because there is no comparison whatever between an armed and a disarmed man, it is not reasonable to suppose that one who is armed will obey one who is unarmed, or that any unarmed man will remain safe among armed servants”

difficult to preserve state’s resources

if depleted then there would need to be heavy taxes on citizens and would not be able to defend state

Why does Machiavelli caution against rulers being too “liberal,” and instead encourage them to not be afraid to be miserly when it comes to spending money?

if idealistic you lose sense of self-preservation bc world is cruel and not everyone has good intentions

Why does Machiavelli argue that “a man who wishes to make a profession of goodness in everything must necessarily come to grief among so many who are not good.”  And, “it is necessary for a prince, who wishes to maintain himself, to learn how not to be good, and to use this knowledge, and not use it, according to the necessity of the case.”? 

he looks at world objectively

doesn’t use morality and instead faces goals directly and cruelly to combat the cruel world around him

Why is Machiavelli often called a pragmatist or a realist? 

his thinking isn’t based off of morality or what is good and is instead based on the means to get to end goal and appearance

Why is Machiavelli’s thinking often characterized as amoral? 

believes that princes should be able to adapt based on circumstances to get the job done

Why do I call Machiavelli a “political chameleon”? 

republic

more motivation and involvement from citizens

more wealth

stronger armies

What is Machiavelli’s preferred form of government?  Why? 

Romulus killed his brother in order to gain power and create a republic for the common good

Caesar gained power for himself and turned on his ppl

Why does Machiavelli praise Romulus and condemn Julius Caesar?

to keep up appearances and allow citizens to not hate ruler

According to Machiavelli, rulers should respect religious practices and support the people’s religions even if the rulers are not men of faith. Why?  

discourses is about the benefit of the ppl

prince is about benefit of the rulers and the pursuit of power for the prosperity of the state

How do Machiavelli’s views in *The Discourses* differ from those set forth in *The Prince*?

absolute sovereign to control peace

ppl give up right to govern themselves by allowing the Leviathan to govern them

Hobbes’ notion of the Leviathan and why such a sovereign is necessary

concepts of state of nature and social contract as explanations for why civil societies emerges

political legacy of Hobbes

to ensure peace for society peace and security is most important to general public over freedoms (liberty promotes division)

Why does Hobbes argue that security must precede liberty? 

human behavior can be explained in terms of bodies in motion

body can only have one head (state: monarchy)

ppl are born, sicken, and die (state: cyclical)

state is natural and subject to invariable laws of nature

How does Hobbes’ materialistic philosophy affect his political philosophy?  

each man is selfish, vain, and only looks out for themselves

ppl are also very competitive

What is Hobbes’ vision of human nature? 

all humans are equal and equally have the right to whatever they consider necessary for their survival

What is the state of nature like according to Hobbes?

nothing can be unjust where there is now law

Why does Hobbes describe the state of nature as a “war of every man against every man”? 

solitary bc no one to trust

poor bc standard of living is low

nasty bc reason demands we destroy or be destroyed

brutish bc passions cannot be developed

short bc threat of violence death is everywhere

Why does Hobbes describe the life of man in his natural state as “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short”? 

every man ought to seek peace and follow it (desire for survival impels to seek peace

a man be willing when others are so too as far forth as for peace and defense of himself he shall think it necessary to lay down his right to all things and be contended with so much liberty against other men as he would allow other men against himself (mutual transferring of rights)

men perform their covenants made (keep promises)

arise out of man’s concern for his own preservation

What does Hobbes understand as the 3 basic “laws of nature” and what do these “laws of nature” boil down to?

we use reason to find the best means to our desires/ends and try to find the best way to achieve our desire through reason

What does Hobbes mean when he says that our reason “scouts” for our desires?

Leviathan

can be king or assembly of men

Who/What is the “Sovereign” in society according to Hobbes?

through social contract ppl give complete sovereign power to the Leviathan in order to keep peace bc war is worse than atrocities for peace of gov

belief in absolute standards against which moral questions can be judged

Why is Hobbes an absolutist? What does this mean?

right to defend one’s own life

What is the only right that reasonable persons would not contractually surrender to the government according to Hobbes?

doesn’t glorify war

gov has purpose of peace and order

does not worship or glorify Leviathan

right to resist

reasons why Thomas Hobbes is better understood as a supporter of an authoritarian rather than a totalitarian government

Hobbes

Which thinker argued that covenants, without the sword, are but words, and of no strength to secure a man at all?