subcultural theory

What are Subcultural Theories?

Subcultural theories argue that crime is not simply individual deviance, but is often committed by groups who share values that differ from mainstream society.

Key idea:

Certain groups develop a subculture — a distinct set of norms and values — which may encourage deviant behaviour.

Subcultural theories are mainly used to explain:

• working-class youth crime

• gangs

• delinquency

• group-based deviance

They emerged as a response to Functionalism and Strain Theory.

ALBERT COHEN — STATUS FRUSTRATION

Cohen (1955) — Delinquent Boys

Albert Cohen developed one of the earliest subcultural theories.

Key question:

Why do working-class boys commit non-utilitarian crime (e.g. vandalism)?

Cohen’s argument:

Working-class boys face failure in school because education reflects middle-class values, such as:

• academic success

• deferred gratification

• respect for authority

Because they cannot achieve status legitimately, they experience:

Status frustration

This is the feeling of humiliation and failure when judged by middle-class standards.

Reaction Formation

Cohen argues that boys respond by rejecting mainstream values and creating an alternative subculture.

This leads to:

• aggression

• vandalism

• delinquency

• anti-school attitudes

Key point:

Delinquency provides status within the group, even if it is condemned by wider society.

Types of crime Cohen explains:

• joyriding

• graffiti

• fighting

• truancy

These crimes are:

non-utilitarian (not for money)

• malicious

• collective

CLOWARD & OHLIN — OPPORTUNITY STRUCTURE

Cloward & Ohlin (1960) — Differential Opportunity Theory

Cloward and Ohlin build on Merton’s strain theory but argue:

Not everyone has equal access to illegitimate opportunities either.

Key concept: Differential opportunity structure

Just as people have unequal access to legitimate success, they also have unequal access to criminal careers.

Three Types of Subculture

Cloward and Ohlin argue that working-class youth form different subcultures depending on the neighbourhood:

• Criminal Subcultures

• stable working-class communities

• adult criminals act as role models

• crime is organised and profitable

Examples:

theft

• drug dealing

• fraud

• Conflict Subcultures

• disorganised neighbourhoods

• little opportunity for organised crime

• gangs compete through violence

Examples:

fighting

• turf wars

• weapon crime

• Retreatist Subcultures

Those who fail in both legitimate and illegitimate structures become:

“double failures”

They retreat into drug use and alcoholism.

Examples:

substance abuse

• petty crime

• escapism

AO1 Summary Line:

Cloward and Ohlin argue delinquency results from both strain and access to illegitimate opportunity structures.

WALTER MILLER — FOCAL CONCERNS

Miller (1958) — Lower-Class Subculture

Walter Miller takes a different approach.

Key idea:

Working-class delinquency is not a reaction to middle-class values.

Instead, he argues the lower class already has a distinct subculture with its own values.

These are core values of lower-class culture that encourage deviance:

1. Trouble

Gaining respect through conflict with authority.

2. Toughness

Masculinity and physical strength are valued.

3. Smartness

Street wisdom and the ability to con others.

4. Excitement

Seeking thrills and risk-taking.

5. Fate

Belief that life is controlled by luck, not planning.

6. Autonomy

Resisting control and authority

MATZA — DRIFT + TECHNIQUES OF NEUTRALISATION

Matza (1964) — Delinquency and Drift

David Matza criticises earlier subcultural theories for being too deterministic.

Key argument:

Young people are not committed full-time criminals.

They move between conformity and deviance through:

Drift

This means individuals drift in and out of delinquency, often temporarily.

Subterranean Values

Matza argues deviance reflects values already present in mainstream society, such as:

• excitement

• aggression

• hedonism

These are normally controlled but sometimes expressed through delinquency.

echniques of Neutralisation

Sykes and Matza argue offenders justify deviance through excuses that neutralise guilt:

1. Denial of responsibility

2. Denial of injury

3. Denial of the victim

4. Condemnation of the condemners

5. Appeal to higher loyalties

Key point:

Delinquents are not rejecting society’s values — they are temporarily suspending them.

MARXIST SUBCULTURAL THEORY — PHIL COHEN

Phil Cohen (1972) — Subcultures and Class Resistance

Phil Cohen provides a Marxist explanation of youth subcultures.

Key context:

Working-class communities experienced:

• unemployment

• loss of traditional industries

• housing redevelopment

• marginalisation

This created a crisis of working-class identity.

Subcultures as Collective Solutions

Cohen argues youth subcultures (mods, skinheads) are:

symbolic forms of resistance

They respond to class marginalisation by providing:

• status

• identity

• belonging

However, this resistance is only temporary and does not change capitalism.

AO3 EVALUATIONS OF SUBCULTURAL THEORY

Subcultural theories over-focus on working-class boys

A major criticism is that subcultural theories are gender-biased, focusing mainly on male delinquency while neglecting female deviance and patriarchy.

Too deterministic

Many subcultural theories assume deviance is an automatic response to deprivation, underestimating individual choice and diversity within the working class.

Ignore white-collar and corporate crime

Subcultural approaches focus on street crime, offering little explanation of elite deviance, which may be more harmful.

Matza’s drift is difficult to test

Concepts such as subterranean values and neutralisation are hard to measure empirically, making the theory difficult to falsify.

Phil Cohen overstates resistance

Marxists are criticised for romanticising subcultures as rebellion, when many subcultures are more about style than genuine political resistance.