Psychology 121 Midterm

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110 Terms

1

What controls memory

hippocampus

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2

Storing

holding information in memory

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Retrieval

reactivating or "retrieving" information that is stored in memory

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4

Implicit memory + example

Non-declarative (unconscious memory)
-knowledge that we cannot consciously access
-ex. knowing how to talk without consciously remembering learning this
-cerebellum

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5

Prenatal Development Stages

germinal stage, embryonic stage, fetal stage

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6

preoperational stage

-2 to 6 years old
-can now represent things with language/mental images but lack logical reasoning
-egocentrism; world is only viewed from their perspective
-pretend play, language development
-"world revolves around me"

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7

The body is controlled by the _____________

nervous system

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8

nervous system

billions of interconnected cells where messages are sent between brain and body

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9

Nervous system consists of

central nervous system and peripheral nervous system

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10

Central Nervous System (CNS)

brain and spinal cord

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Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

neurons that connect CNS to our body

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endocrine system

chemical regulator of our body consisting of glands that secrete hormones

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13

The __________ is the building block of the nervous system

neuron

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14

Neuron

a cell in the nervous system that receives and transmits information

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15

Three major parts of a neuron

dendrites, cell body, axon

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Dendrites

receives info from other neurons and sends it to the cell body

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cell body (soma) of neuron

contains the nucleus and keeps it alive

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axon

transmits neuron's messages from cell body toward other neurons/muscles/glands

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DCBA

Dendrite to Cell Body to Axon

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myelin sheath

a layer of fatty tissue encasing some axons that speeds up transmission of electrical signals

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21

Neurotransmitters vs Synapse

Neurotransmitters- chemical messengers that relay signals across synapses between neurons
Synapse- space between neurons

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22

Neurotransmitters can be

excitatory (makes cell more likely to fire) or inhibitory (makes cell less likely to fire)

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23

hormones

chemicals in bloodstream that affect behavior

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24

brain plasticity

-brain's ability to change its structure and function in response to damage or experiences, especially in childhood
-helps us learn and remember new things

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25

The cerebral cortex is divided into ______ hemispheres, with each hemisphere divided into ______ lobes

two; four

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26

right hemisphere of brain controls...

-controls left side of the body
-controls non-verbal things, attention, music listening, spacial awareness

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left hemisphere of brain controls...

-controls right side of body
-controls language, cognitive function, logic
-most people are dominant here

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28

Major lobes of the brain

frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital

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29

frontal lobe function

-behind forehead
-motor function: problem solving, memory, judgment, impulse control
-does not develop until 23-25

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30

parietal lobe function

-middle-back of skull
-processes sensory and bodily information
-temperature, pain etc.

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temporal lobe function

-sides of brain
-responsible for hearing, language, integrating vision/auditory

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occipital lobe function

-back of skull
-controls vision, processing of visual info

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consciousness

awareness of what is going on around us (external stimuli), and internal events like memories, thoughts, sensations

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34

circadian rhythm + sunlight's role

-daily cycles of sleep and waking, controlled by biological clock
-sunlight makes body alert (decreased melatonin)
-as sun sets, body gets sleepy (increased melatonin)

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35

Melatonin

A sleep hormone manufactured by the pineal gland (endocrine system)

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36

two major types of sleep

-Non-rapid eye movement (NREM)
-Rapid eye movement (REM)

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37

Non-Rapid Eye Movement (NREM) Sleep

-deep sleep characterized by very blow brain waves
-divided into stage 1, 2, 3, 4

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38

Stages of sleep

1, 2, 3, 4, REM

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39

Sleep Stage 1

-brief, light sleep (5% of sleep)
-irregular theta waves
-breathing slows, some muscle tone is lost, most awareness of the environment is lost
-(some have) sudden jerks, hallucinations, sense of falling

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40

Sleep Stage 2

-half (50%) of total sleep time usually
-theta waves with more rapid/random bursts of brain activity (spindles)
-muscle activity further decreases, and conscious awareness of the environment is completely lost
-sleep talking can occur

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Sleep stage 3

-Transition stage to deepest sleep
-delta waves start
-very hard to wake up (still possible)

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42

Sleep stage 4

-slow-wave sleep, the deepest level of sleep
-very slow delta waves
-sleepwalking, sleeptalking, sleep terrors, bed-wetting in kids
-consciousness is distant, yet even in deepest sleep we are still aware of external world (if a baby cries we can still react)

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REM sleep (rapid eye movement)

-25% of sleep; usually after about 60 minutes after falling asleep
-brain becomes more active again, heart rate rises, breathing is rapid/irregular
-Dreaming is most common
-Emotional sleep, motor cortex active, limbic activity/amygdala increases, genitals become aroused (even without sexual dreams)
-NO sleepwalking/sleeptalking
-essentially paralyzed

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44

dreams tend to...

become more vivid and elaborate as the night goes on

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alpha and beta waves

common in wakefulness

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46

4 main sleep disorders

-Night terrors
-Insomnia
-Sleep apnea
-Narcolepsy

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47

Night terrors

-extreme fear waking you up, may involve loud screams or intense panic
-most common in childhood
-effects can linger after waking up
-sufferer cannot wake up when trying to

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48

Insomnia

-inability to sleep
-persistent difficulty in falling or staying asleep
-lack of melatonin
-more common in older people

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49

Sleep apnea

-inability to breathe properly; pauses in breathing while asleep
-not taking in enough oxygen during sleep and can be fatal
-do not go into REM sleep leading to constant tiredness
-CPAP machine helps to breath at night
-sleep study can be done to evaluate

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50

Narcolepsy

-sudden uncontrollable/random episodes of falling asleep
-can be caused by genetics or (rarely) by brain injury
-people with this disorder cannot swim, drive, etc.

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51

Learning

relatively permanent change in knowledge or behavior resulting from experience

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52

Types of learning

classical conditioning, operant conditioning, observational learning

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53

classical conditioning + example

-learning involving an association between two stimuli
-most common type of learning
-Pavlov's dog: Initially dogs only salivated when they saw or smelled food. He repeatedly exposed dogs to a sound before they received food. Eventually, dogs salivated as soon as they heard the sound.

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54

Unconditioned stimulus (US) and unconditioned response (UR)

US- something triggering a natural response
UR- naturally occurring response resulting from the US (unconditioned stimulus)
-Shivering (UR) to cold (US)
-since responses are reflexive, not learned, this makes them unconditioned

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55

Neutral stimulus (NS), Conditioned stimulus (CS), and Conditioned response (CR)

NS- something that does not naturally produce a response
CS- a repeatedly presented neutral stimulus prior to an unconditioned stimulus that evokes similar response to the US, making it a conditioned response
CR- resulting response to conditioned stimulus, which was formerly the neutral stimulus

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56

operant conditioning + example

-Learning that occurs based on consequences of behavior
-Rewards and punishments
-Cats Escaping/Skinner Box
-Child getting good grades because her parents punish her if she does not
-dog rolling over because it was rewarded/praised for doing so previously

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57

Reinforcement vs. Punishment

reinforcement increases behavior, punishment decreases behavior

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58

positive reinforcement vs negative reinforcement + examples

positive: strengthens a response/behavior by positive reward
-giving a child candy for completing homework

negative: strengthens response/behavior by reducing/removing something negative
-taking Advil to reduce pain of headache

both increase likelihood of behavior occurring again

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59

positive punishment vs negative punishment + examples

positive: weakens response/behavior by presenting something unpleasant
-giving student extra homework after misbehaving in class

negative: weakens a response/behavior by removing something pleasant
-taking away teen's phone after missing curfew

both weaken the likelihood of behavior occurring again

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60

observational learning + example

-aka modeling
-learning/modeling our behavior by observing behaviors of others
-"monkey see, monkey do"
-Bobo doll: kids seeing adults "attack", kick, and punch the doll increasing the chance of kids attacking, kicking, punching the doll

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61

memory + three processes of it

-ability to store and retrieve information over time
-encoding, storing, retrieving

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62

encoding

placing things we experience into memory

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sensory memory

very brief storage of sensory information

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64

iconic memory + example

-sensory memory for visual information
-lasts about 1/4 of a second
-ex. temporarily remembering a picture/image

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65

echoic memory + example

-sensory memory for sound
-lasts as long as 4 seconds
-ex. briefly remembering a melody of a song after it stops playing

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66

how many numbers can the brain hold

7

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67

short-term memory (STM) + example

small amounts of info temporarily held for about 30 seconds; not stored permanently and limited capacity
-ex. phone number/someone's name

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68

long-term memory (LTM) + example

-memory storage that holds information for days, months, and years
-ex. knowing how to ride a bike

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69

explicit memory + example

Declarative (conscious memory)
-knowledge or experiences that can be consciously remembered
-remembering a conversation you had with someone
-hippocampus

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70

two types of long term memory

explicit and implicit

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71

intermediate memory

transfers short-term to long-term memory

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72

Chunking + examples

-memory technique
-grouping things together; organizing things by "chunks"
-remembering phone numbers
-The alphabet song "A, B, C, D..." (chunking groups of letters together to memorize alphabet)

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73

Two types of intelligence

fluid and crystallized

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74

fluid intelligence

-capacity to learn new ways of solving problems/performing activities quickly/abstractly
-decreases as you get older
-logic, problem-solving, facts

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crystallized intelligence

-accumulated knowledge of the world acquired over time; comes from experience
-increases as you get older
-language, vocab, history

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76

Types of parenting styles

-authoritarian
-authoritative
-permissive
-neglectful

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77

Demanding vs responsive

demanding- high expectations of behavior/control over kid
responsive- degree of warmth and attention provided

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authoritarian parenting

-demanding/strict/controlling but not responsive
-says no all the time without explanation ("because I said so!")
-kids have no say so

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permissive parenting

-make few demands, almost no punishment, but are warm and affectionate
-allows kid to do whatever they want
-afraid to/never says no to their kid

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neglectful parenting

-undemanding, unresponsive overall
-lack of care/discipline for the kid

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81

authoritative parenting

-balance of rules/demands and responsiveness/understanding/listening to kid's needs and opinions
-says yes and no with explanations ("lets discuss what an appropriate curfew might be")
-kids have some say so
-considered the best way to parent

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82

development is guided by...

genetics (nature) and environment (nurture)

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83

Chromosomes

cells/chains made of DNA that contain the genes (segments of DNA)

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84

prenatal

conception to birth

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85

conception + sex cells #

-egg and sperm sex cells unite
-each sex cell has 23 chromosomes

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86

germinal stage of prenatal development

-conception to implantation in the uterine wall
-lasting about 10-14 days
-zygote

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Zygote

-fertilized egg
-23 egg chromosomes + 23 sperm chromosomes fuse together (46 chromosomes)

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Zygote process (germinal stage)

-travels down fallopian tubes and attaches itself to the uterus (embryo)
-incorrectly fertilized zygotes get flushed out by the menstrual cycle (most cases)
-zygote cells divide rapidly and start to form a human being (embryotic stage starts)

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89

embryonic stage of prenatal development

-cells on insides start to form human being
-zygote attaches itself to wall of uterus making an embryo
-lasts about 6 more weeks
-rapid development
-protected by placenta and amniotic fluid (amniotic sac)
-umbilical cord linking mom and embryo; transfers nutrients and protects

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embryo

-major internal organs are formed
-begins when zygote attaches itself to the wall of the uterus

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91

fetal stage of prenatal development

-final stage; embryo becomes a fetus
-massive growth/increase in size; becoming a human
-9 weeks to birth
-takes on sleeping, breathing, developing senses
-develops initial preferences; newborn prefers mothers voice over strangers

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Down Syndrome

-problem with, or usually an extra 21st chromosome
-born with physical/cognitive impairments

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fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

-maternal alcohol drinking is associated with numerous detrimental developmental effects/conditions
-baby with FAS is born with cognitive/physical defects, but not born an alcoholic

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94

Teratogens

substances that can harm the fetus
-ex. alcohol, drugs, cigarettes, air pollution, environmental factors

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95

Jean Piaget's stages of cognitive development

1. Sensorimotor Stage
2. Preoperational Stage
3. Concrete Operational Stage
4. Formal Operational Stage

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96

sensorimotor stage

-birth to 2 years old
-experiences world through senses/actions (seeing, hearing, touching, mouthing, grasping)
-object permanence/stranger anxiety

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Object Permanence (Piaget)

-concept, gained in infancy, that objects continue to exist even when they are hidden from view
-very young infants (younger than 8 months) do not have this

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98

concrete operational stage

-7 to 11 years old
-thinking logically about events/things, but not abstractly
-can perform operations and do math
-conservation

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99

Conservation (Piaget)

-understanding that changes in the form of an object do not necessarily mean object changed in quantity/mass
-children younger than about 7 do not have this
-ex. children think that a taller glass of milk has more mass than a shorter/wider glass of milk, even when they see the same milk poured from glass to glass

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formal operational stage

-12 to adulthood
-abstract reasoning/logic
-potential for mature moral reasoning

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