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What controls memory
hippocampus
Storing
holding information in memory
Retrieval
reactivating or "retrieving" information that is stored in memory
Implicit memory + example
Non-declarative (unconscious memory)
-knowledge that we cannot consciously access
-ex. knowing how to talk without consciously remembering learning this
-cerebellum
Prenatal Development Stages
germinal stage, embryonic stage, fetal stage
preoperational stage
-2 to 6 years old
-can now represent things with language/mental images but lack logical reasoning
-egocentrism; world is only viewed from their perspective
-pretend play, language development
-"world revolves around me"
The body is controlled by the _____________
nervous system
nervous system
billions of interconnected cells where messages are sent between brain and body
Nervous system consists of
central nervous system and peripheral nervous system
Central Nervous System (CNS)
brain and spinal cord
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
neurons that connect CNS to our body
endocrine system
chemical regulator of our body consisting of glands that secrete hormones
The __________ is the building block of the nervous system
neuron
Neuron
a cell in the nervous system that receives and transmits information
Three major parts of a neuron
dendrites, cell body, axon
Dendrites
receives info from other neurons and sends it to the cell body
cell body (soma) of neuron
contains the nucleus and keeps it alive
axon
transmits neuron's messages from cell body toward other neurons/muscles/glands
DCBA
Dendrite to Cell Body to Axon
myelin sheath
a layer of fatty tissue encasing some axons that speeds up transmission of electrical signals
Neurotransmitters vs Synapse
Neurotransmitters- chemical messengers that relay signals across synapses between neurons
Synapse- space between neurons
Neurotransmitters can be
excitatory (makes cell more likely to fire) or inhibitory (makes cell less likely to fire)
hormones
chemicals in bloodstream that affect behavior
brain plasticity
-brain's ability to change its structure and function in response to damage or experiences, especially in childhood
-helps us learn and remember new things
The cerebral cortex is divided into ______ hemispheres, with each hemisphere divided into ______ lobes
two; four
right hemisphere of brain controls...
-controls left side of the body
-controls non-verbal things, attention, music listening, spacial awareness
left hemisphere of brain controls...
-controls right side of body
-controls language, cognitive function, logic
-most people are dominant here
Major lobes of the brain
frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital
frontal lobe function
-behind forehead
-motor function: problem solving, memory, judgment, impulse control
-does not develop until 23-25
parietal lobe function
-middle-back of skull
-processes sensory and bodily information
-temperature, pain etc.
temporal lobe function
-sides of brain
-responsible for hearing, language, integrating vision/auditory
occipital lobe function
-back of skull
-controls vision, processing of visual info
consciousness
awareness of what is going on around us (external stimuli), and internal events like memories, thoughts, sensations
circadian rhythm + sunlight's role
-daily cycles of sleep and waking, controlled by biological clock
-sunlight makes body alert (decreased melatonin)
-as sun sets, body gets sleepy (increased melatonin)
Melatonin
A sleep hormone manufactured by the pineal gland (endocrine system)
two major types of sleep
-Non-rapid eye movement (NREM)
-Rapid eye movement (REM)
Non-Rapid Eye Movement (NREM) Sleep
-deep sleep characterized by very blow brain waves
-divided into stage 1, 2, 3, 4
Stages of sleep
1, 2, 3, 4, REM
Sleep Stage 1
-brief, light sleep (5% of sleep)
-irregular theta waves
-breathing slows, some muscle tone is lost, most awareness of the environment is lost
-(some have) sudden jerks, hallucinations, sense of falling
Sleep Stage 2
-half (50%) of total sleep time usually
-theta waves with more rapid/random bursts of brain activity (spindles)
-muscle activity further decreases, and conscious awareness of the environment is completely lost
-sleep talking can occur
Sleep stage 3
-Transition stage to deepest sleep
-delta waves start
-very hard to wake up (still possible)
Sleep stage 4
-slow-wave sleep, the deepest level of sleep
-very slow delta waves
-sleepwalking, sleeptalking, sleep terrors, bed-wetting in kids
-consciousness is distant, yet even in deepest sleep we are still aware of external world (if a baby cries we can still react)
REM sleep (rapid eye movement)
-25% of sleep; usually after about 60 minutes after falling asleep
-brain becomes more active again, heart rate rises, breathing is rapid/irregular
-Dreaming is most common
-Emotional sleep, motor cortex active, limbic activity/amygdala increases, genitals become aroused (even without sexual dreams)
-NO sleepwalking/sleeptalking
-essentially paralyzed
dreams tend to...
become more vivid and elaborate as the night goes on
alpha and beta waves
common in wakefulness
4 main sleep disorders
-Night terrors
-Insomnia
-Sleep apnea
-Narcolepsy
Night terrors
-extreme fear waking you up, may involve loud screams or intense panic
-most common in childhood
-effects can linger after waking up
-sufferer cannot wake up when trying to
Insomnia
-inability to sleep
-persistent difficulty in falling or staying asleep
-lack of melatonin
-more common in older people
Sleep apnea
-inability to breathe properly; pauses in breathing while asleep
-not taking in enough oxygen during sleep and can be fatal
-do not go into REM sleep leading to constant tiredness
-CPAP machine helps to breath at night
-sleep study can be done to evaluate
Narcolepsy
-sudden uncontrollable/random episodes of falling asleep
-can be caused by genetics or (rarely) by brain injury
-people with this disorder cannot swim, drive, etc.
Learning
relatively permanent change in knowledge or behavior resulting from experience
Types of learning
classical conditioning, operant conditioning, observational learning
classical conditioning + example
-learning involving an association between two stimuli
-most common type of learning
-Pavlov's dog: Initially dogs only salivated when they saw or smelled food. He repeatedly exposed dogs to a sound before they received food. Eventually, dogs salivated as soon as they heard the sound.
Unconditioned stimulus (US) and unconditioned response (UR)
US- something triggering a natural response
UR- naturally occurring response resulting from the US (unconditioned stimulus)
-Shivering (UR) to cold (US)
-since responses are reflexive, not learned, this makes them unconditioned
Neutral stimulus (NS), Conditioned stimulus (CS), and Conditioned response (CR)
NS- something that does not naturally produce a response
CS- a repeatedly presented neutral stimulus prior to an unconditioned stimulus that evokes similar response to the US, making it a conditioned response
CR- resulting response to conditioned stimulus, which was formerly the neutral stimulus
operant conditioning + example
-Learning that occurs based on consequences of behavior
-Rewards and punishments
-Cats Escaping/Skinner Box
-Child getting good grades because her parents punish her if she does not
-dog rolling over because it was rewarded/praised for doing so previously
Reinforcement vs. Punishment
reinforcement increases behavior, punishment decreases behavior
positive reinforcement vs negative reinforcement + examples
positive: strengthens a response/behavior by positive reward
-giving a child candy for completing homework
negative: strengthens response/behavior by reducing/removing something negative
-taking Advil to reduce pain of headache
both increase likelihood of behavior occurring again
positive punishment vs negative punishment + examples
positive: weakens response/behavior by presenting something unpleasant
-giving student extra homework after misbehaving in class
negative: weakens a response/behavior by removing something pleasant
-taking away teen's phone after missing curfew
both weaken the likelihood of behavior occurring again
observational learning + example
-aka modeling
-learning/modeling our behavior by observing behaviors of others
-"monkey see, monkey do"
-Bobo doll: kids seeing adults "attack", kick, and punch the doll increasing the chance of kids attacking, kicking, punching the doll
memory + three processes of it
-ability to store and retrieve information over time
-encoding, storing, retrieving
encoding
placing things we experience into memory
sensory memory
very brief storage of sensory information
iconic memory + example
-sensory memory for visual information
-lasts about 1/4 of a second
-ex. temporarily remembering a picture/image
echoic memory + example
-sensory memory for sound
-lasts as long as 4 seconds
-ex. briefly remembering a melody of a song after it stops playing
how many numbers can the brain hold
7
short-term memory (STM) + example
small amounts of info temporarily held for about 30 seconds; not stored permanently and limited capacity
-ex. phone number/someone's name
long-term memory (LTM) + example
-memory storage that holds information for days, months, and years
-ex. knowing how to ride a bike
explicit memory + example
Declarative (conscious memory)
-knowledge or experiences that can be consciously remembered
-remembering a conversation you had with someone
-hippocampus
two types of long term memory
explicit and implicit
intermediate memory
transfers short-term to long-term memory
Chunking + examples
-memory technique
-grouping things together; organizing things by "chunks"
-remembering phone numbers
-The alphabet song "A, B, C, D..." (chunking groups of letters together to memorize alphabet)
Two types of intelligence
fluid and crystallized
fluid intelligence
-capacity to learn new ways of solving problems/performing activities quickly/abstractly
-decreases as you get older
-logic, problem-solving, facts
crystallized intelligence
-accumulated knowledge of the world acquired over time; comes from experience
-increases as you get older
-language, vocab, history
Types of parenting styles
-authoritarian
-authoritative
-permissive
-neglectful
Demanding vs responsive
demanding- high expectations of behavior/control over kid
responsive- degree of warmth and attention provided
authoritarian parenting
-demanding/strict/controlling but not responsive
-says no all the time without explanation ("because I said so!")
-kids have no say so
permissive parenting
-make few demands, almost no punishment, but are warm and affectionate
-allows kid to do whatever they want
-afraid to/never says no to their kid
neglectful parenting
-undemanding, unresponsive overall
-lack of care/discipline for the kid
authoritative parenting
-balance of rules/demands and responsiveness/understanding/listening to kid's needs and opinions
-says yes and no with explanations ("lets discuss what an appropriate curfew might be")
-kids have some say so
-considered the best way to parent
development is guided by...
genetics (nature) and environment (nurture)
Chromosomes
cells/chains made of DNA that contain the genes (segments of DNA)
prenatal
conception to birth
conception + sex cells #
-egg and sperm sex cells unite
-each sex cell has 23 chromosomes
germinal stage of prenatal development
-conception to implantation in the uterine wall
-lasting about 10-14 days
-zygote
Zygote
-fertilized egg
-23 egg chromosomes + 23 sperm chromosomes fuse together (46 chromosomes)
Zygote process (germinal stage)
-travels down fallopian tubes and attaches itself to the uterus (embryo)
-incorrectly fertilized zygotes get flushed out by the menstrual cycle (most cases)
-zygote cells divide rapidly and start to form a human being (embryotic stage starts)
embryonic stage of prenatal development
-cells on insides start to form human being
-zygote attaches itself to wall of uterus making an embryo
-lasts about 6 more weeks
-rapid development
-protected by placenta and amniotic fluid (amniotic sac)
-umbilical cord linking mom and embryo; transfers nutrients and protects
embryo
-major internal organs are formed
-begins when zygote attaches itself to the wall of the uterus
fetal stage of prenatal development
-final stage; embryo becomes a fetus
-massive growth/increase in size; becoming a human
-9 weeks to birth
-takes on sleeping, breathing, developing senses
-develops initial preferences; newborn prefers mothers voice over strangers
Down Syndrome
-problem with, or usually an extra 21st chromosome
-born with physical/cognitive impairments
fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)
-maternal alcohol drinking is associated with numerous detrimental developmental effects/conditions
-baby with FAS is born with cognitive/physical defects, but not born an alcoholic
Teratogens
substances that can harm the fetus
-ex. alcohol, drugs, cigarettes, air pollution, environmental factors
Jean Piaget's stages of cognitive development
1. Sensorimotor Stage
2. Preoperational Stage
3. Concrete Operational Stage
4. Formal Operational Stage
sensorimotor stage
-birth to 2 years old
-experiences world through senses/actions (seeing, hearing, touching, mouthing, grasping)
-object permanence/stranger anxiety
Object Permanence (Piaget)
-concept, gained in infancy, that objects continue to exist even when they are hidden from view
-very young infants (younger than 8 months) do not have this
concrete operational stage
-7 to 11 years old
-thinking logically about events/things, but not abstractly
-can perform operations and do math
-conservation
Conservation (Piaget)
-understanding that changes in the form of an object do not necessarily mean object changed in quantity/mass
-children younger than about 7 do not have this
-ex. children think that a taller glass of milk has more mass than a shorter/wider glass of milk, even when they see the same milk poured from glass to glass
formal operational stage
-12 to adulthood
-abstract reasoning/logic
-potential for mature moral reasoning