2.1-2.3 Psychology

Selective Attention

Focusing conscious awareness on a particular stimulus while ignoring others.

Cocktail Party Effect

The ability to focus on one voice among many in a noisy environment.

Inattentional Blindness

Failing to see visible objects when attention is directed elsewhere.

Change Blindness

Failing to notice changes in the environment.

Perceptual Set

A mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another, shaped by expectations.

Context Influence on Perception

External factors can affect how we interpret sensory information.

Motivation Influence on Perception

We tend to see what we want to see, similar to research bias.

Emotion Influence on Perception

Our current feelings can alter what we experience.

Gestalt Psychology

A perspective that emphasizes our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes.

Law of Proximity

We group objects that are close together as part of the same group.

Law of Similarity

We perceive similar-looking objects as part of the same group.

Law of Continuity

We perceive continuous patterns rather than discontinuous ones.

Law of Connectedness

Elements that are connected by other elements are perceived as a single unit.

Law of Closure

We fill in gaps to create a complete, whole object.

Figure-Ground Perception

The organization of the visual field into objects (figures) that stand out from the background.

Depth Perception

The ability to perceive the world in three dimensions and judge distance.

Monocular Cues

Depth cues available to either eye alone, such as linear perspective, interposition, relative size, height, clarity, and light/shadow.

Retinal Disparity

A binocular cue for depth based on the difference between the images in each eye.

Stroboscopic Effect

Perceiving motion from a rapid series of slightly varying images (e.g., flip books).

Phi Phenomenon

The illusion of movement created when lights blink on and off in succession.

Autokinetic Effect

A stationary point of light appears to move in a dark room due to small eye movements.

Perceptual Constancy

Perceiving objects as unchanging even when sensory input changes (e.g., size, shape, brightness).

Cognition

All mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

Concept

A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people.

Schema

A framework that organizes and interprets information.

Prototype

A mental image or best example of a category.

Assimilation

Fitting new information into existing schemas.

Accommodation

Altering existing schemas to fit new information.

Algorithm

A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a problem.

Heuristic

A simple thinking strategy that allows for efficient problem solving but is error-prone.

Intuition

An effortless, automatic feeling or thought without conscious reasoning.

Representativeness Heuristic

Judging the likelihood of things based on how well they match prototypes.

Availability Heuristic

Estimating the likelihood of events based on how easily they come to mind.

Mental Set

A tendency to approach problems using strategies that worked in the past.

Priming

Unconscious activation of associations in memory.

Framing

The way an issue is presented can affect decisions and judgments.

Gambler’s Fallacy

Believing that past random events affect the probability of future ones.

Sunk-Cost Fallacy

Continuing a behavior due to previously invested resources, even if it's no longer beneficial.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to search for information that supports our beliefs and ignore contradictory evidence.

Overconfidence

Overestimating the accuracy of our knowledge and judgments.

Fixation

The inability to see a problem from a new perspective.

Functional Fixedness

Seeing objects only in their usual functions, not recognizing alternative uses.

Belief Perseverance

Clinging to initial beliefs even after they’ve been discredited.

Executive Functioning

Cognitive processes that enable goal-directed behavior, including working memory, self-control, and task-switching.

Memory

The persistence of learning over time through encoding, storage, and retrieval.

Encoding

The process of getting information into the memory system.

Storage

The process of retaining information over time.

Retrieval

The process of getting information out of memory storage.

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

An increase in a cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; the neural basis for learning and memory.

Working Memory

A newer understanding of short-term memory that involves active processing of incoming information and information retrieved from long-term memory.

Central Executive System

Part of working memory that controls attention and coordinates the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad.

Long-Term Memory

The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system.

Short-Term Memory

Activated memory that holds a few items briefly before the information is stored or forgotten.

Sensory Memory

The immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.

Iconic Memory

A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli.

Echoic Memory

A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli.

Rehearsal

Repeating information to help retain it in memory.

Parallel Processing

The brain’s ability to process many aspects of a problem simultaneously.