AP Psychology Topic 7 - Thinking, Problem Solving, and Intelligence

Case Study

In depth investigation of a new, rare, or unique situation (Typically qualitative, but may be quantitive)

Double-Blind Procedure/Study

Both subjects and researcher do not know which individual is in each group

Random Assignment

When everyone in the sample has an equal chance of being in the experimental or control group

Representative Sample

Contains all the characteristics of the larger population

Statistical Significance

A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

Depolarization

Positive ions rushing into the neuron; the action potential occurring (+ charge)

Dopamine

· Pleasure and reward; also movement, attention, and learning

· It is both an excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitter

· High levels are associated with Schizophrenia

· Low levels are associated with Parkinson's disease

Long-Term Potentiation

Strength between neurons increase with repeated use

Somatic Nervous System

Voluntary nervous system

Sympathetic Nervous System

Prepares body for activity (fight or flight)

Cognitive Psychology

Study of thinking, decision-making, and judgements

Concepts

Cognitive groupings of similar objects, events, people, or ideas

Formal Concepts

A mental category of things, events, or ideas that share a set of defining gestures or rules. Often formed by learning

Natural Concepts

A mental category that is formed through direct experience and observation of the world around us

Prototypes

Best representation of something, the first thing to come to mind

Schemas

Mental representation for any person, place, or thing

Assimilation

Making your schemas fit something (children being told gummy vitamins are candy)

Accommodation

Changing your schemas to new information (children finding out gummy vitamins are not candy)

Script

A set of expected experiences/outcomes that a person has about something

Cognitive Map

A mental picture or image of the layout of your physical environment/space

Algorithms

Systematic ways to come to a conclusion

Rules of Logic

"If....then..." statements (If I listen to the teacher and study, then I will do well in class)

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts

Representative Heuristic

Stereotypes

Availability Heuristic

What first comes to mind (why people by products [commercials/celerity endorsement])

Anchoring Heuristic

Changing your thoughts slightly, but not by much (you believe a class will be terrible, but after taking it, you don't hate it but you still didn't like it)

Mental Set

A tendency to only see solutions that have worked in the past

Priming

Exposure to a stimulus influences a person's response without conscious awareness (Loftus- lost in the mall study)

Framing/Framing Effect

How a question is framed or worded that affects your thinking and/or memory (Elizabeth Loftus and car accident study)

Gambler's Fallacy

Belief that an event is more or less likely to happen based on a previous event (Monte Carlos effect)

Sunk-Cost Fallacy

Tendency to continue something because we have invested time, money, or energy even though abandoning ti might be more beneficial (ex: being in a toxic relationship)

Executive Functions

A set of cognitive processes that are essential for controlling behavior and achieving goals.

Creativity

The ability to produce new and valuable ideas

Divergent Thinking

Expands the number of possible problem solutions

Convergent Thinking

Narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

Functional Fixedness

The tendency to think an object has limits to its use

Formal Reasoning

Set ways of thinking to figure something out (procedures, rules, rubrics, etc)

Informal Reasoning

No set way for thinking (studying for a test in one class is different from the other)

Means-End Analysis

The problem solver begins by envisioning the end, or ultimate goal, and then determines the best strategy for attaining the goal in his current situation

Working Backward

A method of problem solving in which an individual imagines they have already solved the problem they are trying to solve

Incubation

The unconscious processing of problems, when they are set aside for a period of time, that may lead to insights

Analogy

Finding a problem that is similar to the problem you need to solve and mapping the solution of that source problem onto the target problem

Confirmation Bias

Looking for evidance to support your belief and ignore evidance that goes against

Belief Perseverance

Our tendency to maintain established beliefs despite clear, contradictory evidence

Multiple Hypotheses

When there are too many problems and you are not able to focus on the one major idea on hand

Expected Value

Expected outcome that we believe will occur if a behavior is repeated (studying)

Utility

What we place importance on (choosing a collage)

Loss Aversion

We consider the loss a bigger impact than a gain (losing your phone v.s getting a new one)

Intelligence

Processing speed, the ability to solve challenging problems, and the ability to adapt

Cognitive Ability

The ability to reason, remember, understand, solve problems, and make decisions

Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

The measure of ones cognitive ability that is calculated and compared to your age group

Average Intelligence

85-115 or 90-110

Mental Age

Based off your intellectual development (if equal to chronic age, intelligence = average)

Chronological Age

Based of your date of birth (if equal to mental age, intelligence = average)

Psychometric Approach/Principles

Intelligence is measured by mental tests (IQ tests) and uses the scores to deem intelligence

Alfred Binet

Created the first modern intelligence test to help identify children who needed special education services. Also believed intelligence was due to nurture

Lewis Terman

Created the original Stanford-Binet IQ which added adult tasks. Also believed intelligence was due to nature

General Intelligence

A general intelligence factor that, according to Spearman and others, underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test

David Weschler & the WAIS/WISC

The WAIS test is used for teens 16+, and the WISC is used for children 15 and under

Verbal Scales

Determine verbal memory and fluency (traditional learning skills)

Performance Scales

Measures the capacity to function (doing tasks) in concrete situations

Information-Processing Approach

Believes that highly intelligent people can process more information and do it faster (fast-brain)

Robert Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Theory that there are three types of intelligence; practical, creative, and analytical

Howard Gardner's Multiple Intelligences

Theory that allows all people to be intelligent in some way

Linguistic

Language smart

Logical-Mathematical

Logic smart

Spatial

Perceptual/space smart

Musical

Music smart

Body-Kinesthetic

Body smart

Intrapersonal

Self smart

Interpersonal

People smart

Naturalistic

Nature smart

Fluid Intelligence

The ability to reason and have flexible thinking (decreases with age)

Crystallized Intelligence

The ability to accumulate knowledge that is stored overtime

Standard/Standardization

Process of making a test uniform, or setting it to a certain standard

Content Validity

Measures what it needs to

Criterion Validity

Determines what a person can do now

Construct Validity

Accurately measures what is being studied

Predictive Validity

Shows what a person can do in the future

Test-Retest Reliability

Uses the same test

Alternate Form

Gives another test with different questions but the same difficulty as the original test (best form to use)

Split-Half Reliability

Compares the odd and even questions or compares the first part of the test with the second part of the test

Socio-Culturally Responsive

Takes into account an individuals background before judging their intelligence

Stereotype Lift

A performance boost due to awareness that a person is not part of the group being negatively stereotyped

Stereotype Threat

A performance decrease due to awareness that a person is part of the group being negatively stereotyped

Flynn Effect

The observed rise in standardized intelligence scores

Personal and Sociocultural Biases

Biases that may impact the way we view people as being intelligent (gender, age, halo effect, similiarty bias)

Achievement Tests

Focuses on things that one has already learned

Aptitude Tests

Focuses on the potential for a person to learn something

Fixed Mindset

How much a person believes their qualities are fixed or permanent

Growth Mindset

How much a person believes that their qualities can change or develop